Introduction to Logical Structuring & Storyboarding

1. Introduction to Logical Structuring & Storyboarding

2. Agenda • Overview 10 minutes • Writing the Introduction 30 minutes • Case Study • Working Out the Logic 60 minutes • Case Study • Grouping the Ideas 20 minutes • Case Study • Creating the Storyboard 110 minutes • Break • CareFirst Case • Debrief 10 minutes

3. Overview

4. Purpose • Introduce the basic concepts of logical structuring to enable you to write and communicate more clearly • This is particularly important for people, such as strategy consultants, who frequently deal with unstructured problems • Objectives • By the end of this session you should: • Have sufficient understanding of the key elements of the Pyramid Principal • Be able to begin applying the concepts to presentations you create Unclear writing, like unclear thinking, is frequently caused by a lack of logical structure

5. A logical structure enables you to translate, analyze and synthesize the information you collect into powerful, fact based recommendations Values of Logical Structure Forces the writer to be “dead clear” about what s/he is communicating to the reader; preventing messages that are unclear, unintended, or intellectually empty Makes Message Precise Enables the writer to identify gaps by anticipating and responding to the reader’s questions before the communication is delivered Reveals Gaps in Thinking Prevents the reader from “working” to understand the message, thereby eliminating the possibility that your message is misunderstood or ignored entirely Provides Clarity to Reader

6. Telephone Message Example EXERCISE Observe how the pyramid forces clarity Original Clearer Mort, John Collins telephoned to say that he can’t make the meeting at 9:00. Hal Johnson says he doesn’t mind making it later, or even tomorrow, but not before 10:30. Don Clifford’s secretary says that Clifford won’t return from Frankfurt until late tomorrow. The conference room is booked tomorrow, but free Thursday. Thursday at 11:00 looks to be a good time. Is that okay with you? Mort, Could we reschedule today’s 9:00 meeting to Thursday at 11:00? This would be more convenient for Collins and Johnson, and would permit Clifford to be present. It is also the only other time this week that the conference room is available. Reschedule today’s meeting to Thursday at 11:00 JC – not today; HJ – tomorrow after 10:30; DC – not before Thursday Room not available tomorrow; Room OK Thursday Is Thursday OK with you? More convenient for JC and HJ Permits DC to attend Room is available

7. A pyramid is a way of organizing ideas and insights into a logical framework that answers a question The Pyramid Structure Governing Thought:States the answer to the question raised in the readers mind – the single recommendation Key Line: Major points that when taken together prove the answer – the logic behind your recommendation Support: Data and facts that support the key line

8. Three key rules to apply when building a pyramid • Ideas at any level must be summaries of the ideas grouped below • Derived from high-level ideas • Point of a paragraph is a summary of the sentences it contains • Ideas in each grouping must always be the same kind of ideas • All ideas are from the same logical grouping • Label idea with a plural noun • Ideas in each grouping must be in a logical order • Deductively • Chronologically • Structurally • Comparatively

9. ABC’s current customers are more likely to shop online than the general population ABC’s competitors are increasing their online product assortment Without an online channel ABC risks losing some customers to competitors ABC’s online sales in 2005 could reach $100mm Defend market share Grow revenue Develop deeper relationships with customers Support ABC’s operating strategy Client service is often structured around discrete activities; simply aggregating the results into a pyramid structure does not create a compelling presentation… ABC should go online and its first priority should be to defend its current market share Primary benefits of the internet strategy Opportunities and Threats

10. …but structuring the communication by applying the rules of pyramid logic will Acme can reduce costs by $10mm in the next 2 years through operational improvements Governing Thought: Differentiate service levels to save $2mm Re-engineer core functions to save $5mm Outsource non-core functions to save $3mm Key Line: Evaluate internal cost of core function Compare cost of function to best-in-class benchmarks Adopt best practices based on benchmarks Select non-core functions Evaluate cost and service level of potential partners Choose one partner for each function Segment customers by value Determine economic level of service for each segment Shift lower value segments to lower cost channels Support:

11. Building a Pyramid • Writing the Introduction—The introduction reiterates in story form what the reader already knows about the subject and sets up the relevant question • Working Out the Logic—Each idea in the pyramid is logically related vertically to the idea above and horizontally to other ideas on the line • Grouping the Ideas—Ideas on a line are grouped in one of three ways: time order, structure order or class order • Creating the Storyboard—After developing the pyramid, the ideas are laid out in a storyboard format • Case Study—We’ll do a case study at the end to practice the above concepts.

12. The Introduction

13. A good introduction must tell a story relevant to the reader Introduction A We are very pleased to have the opportunity to speak with you today. We think that your business is very exciting and you have highly skilled people working for you. We have many ideas on how we can help you, which we would love to sharewith you. Which introduction appeals to you? Introduction B As you are aware, growth in the insurance industry is slowing. Since you have promised investors that you will achieve an annual EPS growth rate of 20%, you need to investigate other opportunities for growth. We believe the highest opportunity for growth is in the brokerage industry.

14. Contain the three elements of a story: The situation The complication The solution implicitly answering a question Set up the relevant question on a reader’s mind that will be answered in the document Remind the reader of the issues rather than inform A good introduction has three main elements Good Introductions

15. Once you have detailed out the introduction, everything else falls into place easily Elements of the Introduction • Situation: A statement about the subject with which you know the reader will agree • Complication: The complicating event that creates the tension in the story • Question: The implicit question that results from the complication Answer

16. Creating an S–C–Q (Situation – Complication – Question) • The Situation • Starting point for your story • Non-controversial statement • Triggers the reader to wonder “so what?” • The Complication • Follows the situation • Introduces a disturbing event • Should raise a question in the readers’ mind (that your document will then address) • Key Question • The situation: complication can create questions • What do we do? • Is this the right solution? • Why not? The Superbowl is on television on Sunday I have work and other activities I need to do on Sunday How do I …?

17. You can create multiple S-C-Q scenarios with the same base information; therefore, it is important to consider all options before settling on one solution Situation: The Superbowl is on television on Sunday Complication: I have other work and activities I should be doing on Sunday Question: How do I prioritize my time on Sunday Focus: Activity prioritization strategies Situation: The Superbowl is on television on Sunday. I would like to watch it but have to complete a number of work/activities during the day Complication: The work activities necessitate getting together with my team Question: How can I combine meeting with my team and watching the Superbowl Focus: Facilities identification & ground rules for multi-tasking Situation: The Superbowl is on television on Sunday Complication: I have other activities that I should be doing on Sunday Question: How can I change my commitments to have Sunday off work Focus: Negotiation strategy to change my commitments

18. Exercise 1. S-C-Q • Develop S-C-Q alternatives for one topic • Potential Topics: • Organizing a client meeting • Identifying resources required for a project • Making a deliverable deadline • Develop at least 2 alternative S-C-Qs for your selected topic

19. Working Out the Logic

20. The pyramid imposes a vertical Q&A dialogue with the reader; the horizontal groupings answer the question Governing Thought: • Vertical Logic: • Creates a question and answer dialogue • Pyramid asks questions until there are no more questions raised by the answers given • Typical questions: • Why? • How? • How do you know? Key Line: Support: • Horizontal Logic: • Logically answers questions raised vertically • Logic/reasoning used to answer questions: • Inductive • Deductive

21. Vertical Logic Questions Structure Example We must redesign customer service to take advantage of $X million in savings How? Action Step Step Step Redirect volume Improve organizationalefficiency Establish operational standards We should purchase a new office building onMain Street Why? Conclusion Reason Reason Reason We need moreoffice space It is the least expensive option It is a moreconvenient location

22. Answer: Vertical Logic – How? S: Gillette must increase its focus on the 18-25 year-old market C: Gillette is not currently focused on the 18-25 year-old market Q: How can Gillette increase its focus on the 18-25 year-old market? Gillette must develop a value proposition tailored to the 18-25 year-old market. Governing Thought: How? Understand the uniqueneeds of the 18-25 year-old market Adapt product line to meet the younger market’s needs Educate the 18-25 year-old market on Gillette’s ability to meet their needs Key Line: Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

23. Answer: Vertical Logic – Why? S: Approval for Merck’s new lifestyle drug Antizak is taking longer than expected C: Merck can spend $25 million to accelerate the approval process Q: Should Merck spend $25 million to accelerate the approval process? Merck should spend $25 million to accelerate the approval process for Antizak Governing Thought: Why? The Antizak market is expected to top $1 billion per year Earlier approval allows Merck more time before patent protection expires, which is worth $200 million in profit Competitors are developing a substitute that may capture the market if launched first Key Line: Reason 1 Reason 2 Reason 3

24. Quiz: Which Question is Raised - How or Why? S: Ford’s plant is not meeting its production goals C: The production line is frequently stopped because of insufficient parts Q: What should the plant do differently? A: The parts procurement process needs to be redesigned to reduce fulfillment time S: Sow’s Ear Inc. developed a silk purse product line 2 years ago C: Since then, the silk purse division has been unprofitable Q: What should Sow’s Ear do? A: Sow’s Ear Inc. should abandon its silk purse product line S: Books-a-Million, a book retailer, is considering developing an online channel C: The online retail book market is dominated by 2 strong players Q: Should Books-a-Million develop an online channel? A: Yes, Books-a-Million should go online because it cannot afford to lose market share S: You have undertaken a number of initiatives to improve customer service C: Customer service continues to result in decreased customer satisfaction Q: How can we improve customers service? A: We must completely redesign customer service

25. Vertical Logic Example – Delegating Work S: I have a project deadline this week C: I have to complete several action items in order to meet the deadline Q: How do I meet the deadline? By delegating work I can meet this week’s project deadline Governing Thought: How? Some of the less senior team members could complete the work over the next two days Why? Early drafts of the document exists Some team members are currently under-utilized

26. Exercise 2. Vertical Logic • Build a vertical logic tree using one of the alternatives from your selected S-C-Q (Exercise 1) S: C: Q: Answer Governing Thought: Key Line:

27. There are only two possible horizontal logic flows Deductive Groupings Presents an argument in successive steps • 1st idea makes statement about a situation that exists • 2nd idea comments on the subject or predicate of the first • 3rd idea states the implication of the first two ideas existing at the same time • Conclusion summarizes the argument of the ideas Deduction Conclusion Inductive Groupings Groups ideas related by their plural noun Inductive Inference • Ideas are all the same type: • Steps • Reasons • Problems • Ideas described by the same plural noun • Draw inference based on the similarity of the ideas

28. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning I fly because I am a bird • The first point makes a statement • The second point comments on the first • The third point is the “therefore” point • The point above summarizes the grouping by taking the third point, putting it above, and adding a “because” to cover the other two points Birds fly I am a bird Therefore, I fly Inductive Reasoning • Ideas are all of the same kind (have the same subject or the same predicate) • They are all able to be described by the same plural noun (e.g., reasons, problems, steps) • The point above states the insight gleaned by seeing the similarity in the ideas Poland is becoming a prime attraction for European tourists French tourists are forsaking the Riviera for Warsaw German tourists are driving in droves to Krakow Russian tourists are sampling the delights of Polish vodka in Poland Italian tourists are responding to the joys of Polish opera • Thus, the rule of thumb is: • In deduction, the second point comments on the first • In induction, the points are separate and of the same kind

29. Quiz: Which Logic is Represented? • To maintain its growth, XYZ needs to move into new markets • XYZ needs to sustain a high growth rate • The growth rate in XYZ’s current market is slowing • XYZ needs to move into new markets • Acme Industries can increase revenue by $100 MM per year • Develop an online channel • Extend the product line • Target new customers • Sow’s Ear Inc. should exit the silk purse market • The silk purse market is stagnant • Stagnant textile industries are unprofitable • The silk purse division is not profitable

30. Related Points Related Points Unrelated Points Answers: Which Logic is Represented? • To maintain its growth, XYZ needs to move into new markets • XYZ needs to sustain a high growth rate • The growth rate in XYZ’s current market is slowing • XYZ needs to move into new markets • Acme Industries can increase revenue by $100 million per year • Develop an online channel • Extend the product line • Target new customers • Sow’s Ear Inc. should exit the silk purse market • The silk purse market is stagnant • Stagnant textile industries are unprofitable • The silk purse division is not profitable Deductive Inductive Deductive

31. Summary • Vertical Logic: Creates the question and answer dialogue between the parties • Two typical questions raised through vertical logic are: • How? • Why? • Horizontal Logic: Answers questions raised vertically • Horizontal logic typically uses: • Inductive reasoning - groups ideas of the same type that are related by their plural noun • Deductive reasoning - presents an argument in successive steps

32. Exercise 3. Horizontal Logic • Create one Inductive logic stream and one Deductive Logic stream for your pyramid based on two different Key Lines Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

33. Grouping Ideas

34. Ideas in any grouping must be in logical order • The logical order of ideas for deductive groupings are imposed by the structure of deductive reasoning • Inductive groupings follow one of three logical orders: • Time order • Structural order • Class/degree order Time Order Structure Order Class Order Universe of Problems Outcome Company Structure 3 Key Problems All Other Problems Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Division A Division B Division C • Grouping items to reflect the order in which they occur • Always answer “how” question • Grouping ideas in the order that reflects what you see once you visualize something—by diagram or map or drawing • Grouping items because they possess a characteristic in common and are different from other items in the universe

35. List all Ideas Identify the Type of Issues Summarize the Ideas Order the Ideas Clarifying Grouped Ideas Process to clarify grouping of ideas: • Define problem / issue within each idea: • Ask “Why isthis a problem / issue?” • Identify: • Patterns • Categories • Ideas • Write the essence of each category • Create a list of key ideas: • Findings from interviews • Research • Analysis • Organize ideas into logical order: • Order of Importance • Time Order

36. List all Ideas Identify the Type of Issues Summarize the Ideas Order the Ideas Clarifying Grouped Ideas: Example Many businesses are moving out of cities & into the country due to the following: • High city taxes • Higher wage rates • No room to expand • Employees commuting time • City office space is expensive • Poor public transportation • Lack of technology infrastructure • Operating cost • Office space • Employee impact • Operational costs • Office space requirements • Ability to attract and retain employees • High city taxes • Higher wage rates • No room to expand • Employees commuting time • City office space isexpensive • Lack of publictransportation • Lack of technologyinfrastructure • The major causes of businesses moving to the country are: • Ability to attract and retain employees • High costs ofoperating in the city • Office spacerequirements

37. Clarifying Grouped Ideas: Example (cont’d) The major causes of businesses moving to the country are: Why? Governing Thought: Ability to attract and retain employees High costs of operating in the city Office space requirements Key Line: Employee commuting time Lack of public transportation High city wage tax Higher wage rates Expense of office space No room to expand Lack of technological infrastructure Support: Order of importance was dictated by a low unemployment rate, a move to cost management, and finally growth perspective of most businesses in the city. Why the Order?

38. MutuallyExclusive Do any of the points overlap? MECE CollectivelyExhaustive Have all possibilities been covered/or explored? Don’t forget to apply the Rules of MECE to your pyramid MECE = Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive Example • Making Dinner: • Select menu • Buy ingredients • Prepare courses • Mobile Phone Types: • Analog cellular • Digital cellular • Digital PCS • Reasons to acquire competitor ABC: • Complimentary customer base • Superior technology • Digestible size

39. MECE Example • Which belong to a MECE Grouping? • Africa • Hong Kong • North America • Amazon • Australia • Manila • South America • Antarctica • Taipei • Asia • Europe • Hanoi

40. One Common MECE Grouping Is By Time Order Time Order Example We identified the highest-potential area for cost reduction in credit card operations. Governing Thought: Identified all costs involved in each division within credit card operations Compared the costs in each division to external benchmarks Calculated the variance btw internal costs and external benchmarks to identify widest gap Key Line: Support: Supporting ideas/data

41. A Second MECE Grouping Is By Structure Order Structure Order Example Wallace Cheese, Inc. needs to increase profits. Governing Thought: Raise the priceper pound of cheese Reduce manufacturingcost per pound of cheese Key Line: Support: Supporting ideas/data

42. A Final Common MECE Grouping Is By Class Order Class Order Example ABC should develop an integrated customer service strategy. Governing Thought: Customer retention will improve, creating more revenues. Customer interactions will be more structured, reducing burden on reps & increasing their morale. ABC’s brand image will improve. Key Line: Support: Supporting ideas/data

43. Creating the Storyboard

44. SituationComplication(Question) Page 1 Translating your well-structured pyramid into a horizontal presentation is easy From Pyramid to Storyboard Cutting Edge Corporation should close its razor manufacturing operation in Wisconsin and manufacture razors in Mexico Page 2 Governing Thought: Overall costs in Mexico are 75% lower than in Wisconsin, resulting in recovery of moving costs in 6 months Mexico provides an operating environment that is as stable as Wisconsin, ensuring continuity of operations Manufacturing technology is more advanced in Mexico than in Wisconsin, enabling Cutting Edge to leverageleading edge capabilities Key Line: Each requiresa set-uppage Support: One page for each idea

45. Your 1st page of your document describes the situation and complication; the 2nd page provides the answer as well as the rationale Overview Cutting Edge Corporation currently manufactures all of its razors in a Wisconsin plant. The plant was built 50 years ago and the location selected because of its proximity to key suppliers. However, over the last 3 years, all of your key competitors have moved their manufacturing facilities to Mexico. Your key suppliers are also beginning to move operations to Mexico. 1 S: Cutting Edge Corp. currently manufactures all of its razors in a plant in Wisconsin C: Cutting Edge’s key competitors have relocated their manufacturing facilities to Mexico Q: Should Cutting Edge move its Wisconsin plant to Mexico? • Cutting Edge corporation should close its razor manufacturing operation in Wisconsin and manufacture razors in Mexico. Doing so will reduce costs while ensuring operating stability and providing access to world-class technology. • Reduce Costs — Overall costs in Mexico are 75% lower than in Wisconsin, resulting in fast recovery of moving cost • Ensure stability — Mexico provides a stable operating environment that will ensure continuity of operations • Improve capabilities — Manufacturing technology is more advanced in Mexico, enabling Cutting Edge to leverage leading edge capabilities 2

46. Reduce Costs • Labor Cost____ • ______ • Investment____ • ______ • Recovery • ______ 3 Labor Cost 67.2 57.5 53.9 41.9 34.0 $22.4 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 4 Investment 20.0 120.0 24.0 50.5 $25.5 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 5 Recovery 67.2 57.5 53.9 41.9 34.0 $22.4 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 6 The 3rd page will start to go through the support for the governing thought using the top down approach Cutting Edge Corporation should close its razor manufacturing operation in Wisconsin and manufacture razors in Mexico Governing Thought: Overall costs in Mexico are 75% lower than in Wisconsin, resulting in full recovery of moving costs in 6 months Key Line: Costs are 75% lower operating generating $10mm/year in savings The net cost of moving from Wisconsin to Mexico is $5mm, half the annual savings The net cost of moving will be fully recovered in 6 month Support:

47. The Horizontal Logic of Storyboarding Leads the Audience From One Page to Another • Can the headlines of the deliverable be scanned to determine the context of the document? • Can the document tell a story without a consultant there to explain it? • In the case of a Word Document, does the Table of Contents tell its own story about the flow of the deliverable? Deliverables require key threads. Threads flow through the entire deliverable. This creates a narrative story. A narrative’s logic can be easily followed. The narrative must be understood by clients. Understanding gives a deliverable credibility.

48. The Vertical Logic (Content) On a Page Must Support the Headline of the Storyboard • Does the content of the page match the heading? • Is the page clean, simple, and uncluttered? • Does the page convey a message through the use of tasteful graphics and text? The company should build a warehouse in Chicago. E-tailers must focus on increasing Volumes. • Seen increase in volumes over 3-year time period.

49. 20.0 20.0 120.0 120.0 24.0 24.0 67.2 67.2 67.2 67.2 57.5 57.5 57.5 57.5 53.9 53.9 53.9 53.9 50.5 50.5 41.9 41.9 41.9 41.9 34.0 34.0 34.0 34.0 $22.4 $22.4 $22.4 $22.4 $25.5 $25.5 1996 1996 1997 1997 1998 1998 2000 2000 1999 1999 1995 1995 1996 1996 1997 1997 1998 1998 1999 1999 2000 2000 1995 1995 1996 1996 1997 1997 1998 1998 1999 1999 2000 2000 100% 100% 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 67.2 57.5 53.9 41.9 34.0 $22.4 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 The complete Story Board should mirror the structure of your pyramid Reduce Costs Reduce Costs Overview Overview Overview Overview Overview Cutting Edge corporation should close its razor Overview Cutting Edge corporation should close its razor manufacturing operation in Wisconsin and manufacture manufacturing operation in Wisconsin and manufacture § § Labor Cost____ Labor Cost____ razors in Mexico. Doing so will reduce costs while Cutting Edge Corporation currently manufactures all of its razors un a Wisconsin plant. The plant was built 50 years ago and the location selected of its proximity to key suppliers… razors in Mexico. Doing so will reduce costs while - ensuring operating stability and providing access to world ensuring operating stability and providing access to world - – – ______ ______ class technology. class technology. § § Investment____ Investment____ § Reduce Costs — Overall costs in Mexico are 75% § Reduce Costs — Overall costs in Mexico are 75% lower than in Wisconsin, resulting in fast recovery of – – ______ ______ moving cost However, over the last 3 years, all of your key competitors have moved their manufacturing facilities to Mexico. Your key suppliers are also beginning to move operations to Mexico moving cost key suppliers are also beginning to move operations to key suppliers are also beginning to move operations to key suppliers are also beginning to move operations to key suppliers are also beginning to move operations to Mexico Mexico § Ensure stability — Mexico provides a stable operating § § Recovery Recovery Mexico Mexico § Ensure stability — Mexico provides a stable operating suppliers… environment that will ensure continuity of operations – – ______ ______ § Improve capabilities — Manufacturing technology is § Improve capabilities — Manufacturing technology is more advanced in Mexico, enabling Cutting Edge to leverage leading edge capabilities leverage leading edge capabilities 1 1 3 1 1 Mexico 1 2 1 2 Recovery Investment Labor Cost Labor Cost Investment Recovery Ensure Stability • • • • • • Description Text • Macroeconomic Macroeconomic Text • Environment Environment Text • Text Labor Unions Labor Unions Text Text Text Legal Legal Text Infrastructure Infrastructure Text \ \ \ \ \ 7 5 6 4 5 Improve Capabilities Macroeconomic Environment Labor Unions Legal Infrastructure t) – – Provision Cutting n • ____________________ Packaging n Chart Title: 14pt Bold, Title Case Chart Title: 14pt Bold, Title Case Title Text Title Text • Chart Subtitle: 12pt, Title Case Chart Subtitle: 12pt, Title Case • ____________________ • First level bullet • First level bullet Chart Units or Dates: 10pt, Title Case (e.g., $ Millions; Percen t) Chart Units or Dates: 10pt, Title Case (e.g., $ Millions; Percen Second level bullet Second level bullet Quality Control n • ____________________ Label: 10pt Bold, Centered Title Case • Label First level bullet Label 10pt Bold, – Second level bullet 10pt Bold, Centered Centered Label First level bullet Label • 10pt Bold, – Second level bullet 10pt Bold, Centered Centered First level bullet Label Label – Second level bullet 10pt Bold, 10pt Bold, Centered Centered \ FS \ \ \ K: \ FS \ \ \ \ \ 11 8 9 10 Next Steps Quality Control Provision Cutting Packaging _______________________________ n _______________________________ n _______________________________ n _______________________________ n • Column Title Text Column Title Text Column Title Text Label: 10pt Label: 10pt Label: 10pt – Times New Roman Bold Times New Roman Bold Times New Roman Bold First level bullet First level bullet • First level bullet • • • – Second level bullet – Second level bullet Second level bullet Text Description: First level table bullet First level table bullet First level table bullet – Second level table bullet – Second level table bullet – Second level table bullet • – First level bullet First level bullet • First level bullet • • • – Second level bullet – Second level bullet Second level bullet Text Description: First level table bullet First level table bullet First level table bullet – Second level table bullet – Second level table bullet – Second level table bullet • • • • – First level bullet First level bullet • First level bullet Text Description: First level table bullet First level table bullet First level table bullet – Second level bullet – Second level bullet Second level bullet – Second level table bullet – Second level table bullet – Second level table bullet 15 14 12 13 \

50. There Are Six Primary Storyboarding Pitfalls • See below • Headline does not capture key idea of page • So what? • Headline offers information but no conclusion • Data dump • Support is not logically presented • Orphan data • Support is not captured or introduced by headline • Visual clutter • Page has too much and too complex information • Visual mismatch • Support and headline are unrelated