Instrumental and Operant Conditioning and Social Learning Theory

1. Instrumental and Operant Conditioningand Social Learning Theory Learning the Consequences of Behaviour (Lecture by Janet Jagger)

2. Classical conditioning cannot explain all learning People also learn associations between responses and consequences that follow them E.g. a child learns to say “please” in order to get a chocolate A headache sufferer learns to take a pill in order to escape pain

3. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box • While Pavlov was studying classical conditioning in animals, Edward Thorndike studied animals ability to think and reason • He placed a hungry animal, usually a cat, in a “puzzle box” – where it had to learn a response, such as stepping on a pedal or pulling a loop of string in order to unlock the door and get to some food • The animal would solve the puzzle, but very slowly – there did not appear to be any insight into the problem

4. So – what were Thorndike’s cats learning? • Thorndike argued that any response (such as pacing or meowing) that does not produce a satisfying effect (opening the door) gradually becomes weaker, and any response (pressing the pedal) that does have a satisfying effect gradually becomes stronger

5. Thorndike’s Law of Effect • According to this law, if a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is followed by satisfaction (such as a reward), that response is more likely to be made the next time the stimulus is encountered • Conversely, responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again • Thorndike called this instrumental conditioning because responses are strengthened when they are instrumental in producing rewards

6. B.F.Skinner • About 40 years after Thorndike published his work, B.F. Skinner extended and formalised many of Thorndike’s ideas • Skinner emphasised that during instrumental conditioning an organism learns a response by operating on the environment • He called this process of learning Operant Conditioning

7. Skinner (1953,1974,1990) was a Harvard University psychologist who spent most of his career studying simple responses made by laboratory rats and pigeons • Skinner demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favourable consequences, and that they tend not to repeat those responses that are followed by neutral or unfavourable consequences • He studied the concepts of reinforcement, extinction and punishment in the learning process

8. Operant Conditioning • This is a form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences • Operant conditioning probably governs a larger share of human behaviour than classical conditioning, since most human responses are voluntary rather than reflexive

9. Reinforcement • Reinforcement can be either positive or negative • Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened (occurs more often) because it is followed by the arrival of a pleasant stimulus • Positive reinforcement is synonymous with reward and examples of reinforcement are food, money, sex, parental or peer approval,

10. Reinforcement guides much of everyday behaviour- eg we study in order to pass, or patients comply if they hope to recover, children act the fool to make other children laugh (attention). Some “sick role” bahaviour may be engaged in, in order to be looked after.

11. Negative Reinforcement • Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened (occurs more often)because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus- in other words, to get rid of an aversive stimulus • E.g. we turn up the heating to avoid the cold, you clean to avoid living in filth, you take a paracetamol to get rid of a headache.

12. Negative reinforcement plays a large role in avoidance tendencies- many people avoid that which they find difficult to face up to • avoidance behaviour gets rid of anxiety and is therefore negatively reinforced • Eg we may avoid going to work to avoid the stress/anxiety

13. Extinction • This refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response • In operant conditioning, extinction begins when a previously reinforced response stops producing positive responses • Eg boy who acts the clown in primary school might find that his behaviour elicits scorn as he gets older and goes to high school

14. Punishment • Some resonses may be weakened by punishment - because of the arrival of an unpleasant stimulus • nb - students often confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. • In negative reinforcement a behaviour is strengthened, in punishment a behaviour is usually weakened. Punishment here goes beyong the concept of parental discipline

15. Cognition in Behaviourism? • Skinner’s ideas are still influential, but other theorists have gone beyond behaviourism to develop cognitive-behavioural models • Cognition refers to the thought processes involved in acquiring knowledge • One of these models is Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

16. Social Learning Theory • This is a modified version of Behaviourism and takes into account how individuals seek out and actively process information about their environment- therefore it takes account of the mind (mental processes) • The main element is Bandura’s (1977,1986) description of observational learning. • This occurs when one’s behaviours are influenced by the observation of others, who are called models

17. Bandura asserts that this type of learning is not separate from classical and operant conditioning, but that both can arise when one observes another’s conditioning • For example, if a child sees another person getting a reinforcement - getting what they want- by acting aggressively (bullying), they may emulate that behaviour.

18. Health care professionals can act as good role models, provided they are liked or respected • Other role models for health related behaviour may be peers or celebrities e.g. women seem to go on diets that are seen to be successful in reducing weight • Consider body image issues

19. Smoking may receive social approval in certain circles and is therefore reinforced • Drinking alcohol is socially reinforced - it can be seen as mature, exciting and glamorous (role models) • Drinking alcohol can act as a negative reinforcement- it can temporarily reduce anxiety and worry, therefore drinking behaviour may increase

20. Personality Development • According to social learning theory, models have a great impact on personality development • Bandura and his colleagues have done a great deal of research on how role models influence the development of aggressiveness, gender roles, and moral standards in children.

21. Behavioural Therapies • It is assumed that behaviour is a product of learning • Therefore, it is assumed that what has been learned can be unlearned • Behaviour therapy and cognitive -behavioural therapies are used by psychologists and mental health professionals to alter maladaptive behaviours.

22. Social Skills Training • Behaviour therapists point out that people are not born with social skills or finesse • Social skills training can help to overcome social anxiety, shyness, and depression • It is a therapy designed to improve interpersonal skills- through shaping, modeling and behaviour rehearsal