Catching Bubbles: Supporting the Emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers Through Relationships

1. Catching Bubbles: Supporting the Emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers Through Relationships Erika London Bocknek, PhD, LMFT, IMH-E® (IV-R/F) Keynote Address Council of Infant/Toddler Educators Iselin, NJ April 4, 2014

2. "There is no such thing as a baby ... if you set out to describe a baby, you will find you are describing a baby and someone.'' (Winnicott, 1947)

3. Overview • Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood • Emotion Regulation as Resilience • What is it? • Why does it matter? • Co-regulation in relationships • Parents • Families • Special Focus on Play

4. “Emotions are the process by which an individual attempts to establish, change, or maintain his or her relation to the environment on matters of significance to the person.” (Witherington, Campos, & Hertenstein, 2004)

5. Early Emotional Development • Newborn’s emotional life is relatively undifferentiated • Two global arousal states • Attraction to pleasant stimulation • Withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation. • Over time, emotions become clear, well-organized signals.

6. Early Emotional Development • Directly inferred from facial expressions • By 6 months, emotional expressions are well-organized and specific • Most research attention • Happiness • Anger • Sadness • Fear

7. Happiness • Binds parent and baby • Fosters the infant’s developing competence. • Social smile (after seeing a human face) – 6 to 10 weeks • Laughter – 3 to 4 months • 10-12 month olds have several kinds of smiles

8. Anger • Newborns show only generalized distress • Angry expressions increase in frequency and intensity from 4-6 months into the second year • Cognitive and motor development both contribute to the increase in angry reactions with age. • Anger is adaptive – defend themselves, overcome obstacles

9. Sadness • Response to pain, removal of an object, and brief separation • Common when parent-child interaction is seriously disrupted • Expressions of sadness are usually less frequent than anger.

10. Fear • Fear (like anger) rises during the second half of the first year. • Stranger anxiety (>6 mos.) • Temperament • Social referencing • Past experiences with strangers • Culture can modify stranger anxiety • Protects newly crawling and walking babies

11. Understanding and responding to the emotions of others • Infants’ emotional expressions depend on ability to interpret emotional cues of others • Emotional contagion– process by which babies detect others’ emotions (built-in) • Facial expressions perceived as organized pattern (7-10 months) – can match emotion in a voice with the appropriate face of a speaking person • Dondi et al., 1999 demonstrate early indicators of empathy in newborns, demonstrating differential responses to other babies’ cries than their own.

12. Social referencing • Emerges around 8-10 months • Infant relies on a trusted person’s emotional reaction to decide how to respond in an uncertain situation. • Method of learning about the environment through indirect experience (safety and security).

13. Self-conscious emotions • Higher order set of feelings Shame Guilt Envy Pride Embarrassment • Self-conscious emotions involve injury to or enhancement of the sense of self • Middle of second year (18-24 months) • Emerge with the sense of self • Play important roles in children’s achievement-related and moral behaviors.

14. Emotion Regulation refers to changes associated with activated emotions; can refer to emotions as regulated or regulating. Cole, Martin, Dennis, 2004

15. Emotion Regulation • Besides building on their range of emotional reactions, infants and toddlers begin to manage their emotional experiences • Strategies used to adjust emotional states to a comfortable level of intensity in order to accomplish goals. • Depends on maturity as well as input from caregivers. • Language and motor development help as well.

16. Emotion Regulation in Infancy • Effective strategies include: • Sucking (nutritive and non-nutritive) • Rocking • Swaddling • Touch and infant massage • Body awareness • Matching infant cues • Supported rhythmicity

17. Emotion Regulation in Toddlerhood • Identify emotions • Use emerging competencies in motor, cognitive, and language domains to attenuate emotions • Seek out important others • Build fundamental repertoire • Learn value of coping and problem solving

18. Resilience in Early Childhood

19. Resilience capability of a strained body to recover its size and shape after deformation caused especially by compressive stress the power or ability to return to the original form, position, etc., after being bent, compressed, or stretched capacity to withstand stress and catastrophe MAINTENANCE OF POSITIVE ADAPTATION BY INDIVIDUALS DESPITE EXPERIENCES OF SIGNIFICANT ADVERSITY Luthar & Zigler, 1991; Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990; Rutter, 1990; Werner & Smith, 1982, 1992).

20. Resilience in Early Childhood “Ordinary Magic” Resilience does not require something rare or special Masten, 2001

21. Resilience in Early Childhood • Coping • Self-regulation considered a primary source of resilience for prevention of mood disorders (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000) • Particularly pivotal in predicting good outcomes after traumatic experience (Agaibi & Wilson, 2005).

22. Emotion Regulation Underscores: Brophy-Herb, Farber, Bocknek, Stansbury, & McKelvey, 2013 ; Domitrovich, Cortes, & Greenberg, 2007 • Academic Achievement • Attention, problem solving skills • Mental Health • Lower risk of internalizing/externalizing behaviors • High Quality Relationships • Processing emotional information and social cues • Physical Health • Reduced risk of obesity and addictive behaviors

23. A Relationship-Based Model Constructive, caring relationships are fundamental to the human experience. Healthy early relationships are fundamental to later ability to love and learn. A responsive adult is sensitive and caring. Wittmer & Petersen, 2013

24. Family “Only the family, society's smallest unit, can change and yet maintain enough continuity to rear children who will not be ‘strangers in a strange land,’ who will be rooted firmly enough to grow and adapt.” Salvador Minuchin

25. FAMILY

26. National Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project(EHSREP; Love et al., 2005)

27. National Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project • 3,001 families • Longitudinal design, assessments at 14-month, 24-month, 36-month, and Transition to Kindergarten timepoints

28. Emotion Regulation, Parenting, and Learning Readiness (Brophy-Herb, Farber, Bocknek, Stansbury, & McKelvey, 2013) Enhancing maternal supportiveness and children’s emotion regulation are considered to be crucial for the development of young children’s school readiness and are particularly important for children from low-income families who are at higher risk for reduced school readiness. What about the parenting relationship matters?

29. Emotion Regulation and Parenting Maternal supportiveness is a longitudinal predictor of toddlers’ emotional regulatory development over toddlerhood, particularly in at-risk families (Bocknek, Brophy-Herb, & Banerjee, 2009). These processes are supported by child factors, parenting emotion socialization processes, and family resilience (Bocknek et al., 2008; Brophy-Herb, Schiffman, Bocknek, et al., 2011). An important overarching consideration: how does family organization lead to child organization?

30. Family Routines and Rituals

31. What are rituals? • INTENTIONAL • Occur at the same time and place: “This is what we do.” • Reflect significance to the family: “This is what is important to us.” • Promote family identity: “This is who we are.” Doherty, 1999; Fiese et al, 2003

32. Why are rituals important? • Develop family identity and meaning-making • Provide sense of security and predictability for young children • Promote parenting self-efficacy • Create “emotional residue” and support family and individual resilience (Fiese, Tomcho, Douglas, Josephs, Poltrock, & Baker, 2002).

33. Why are rituals important? • Emotional Residue (Fiese et al., 2002): • Defining characteristic of a ritual • Affective memory of a ritual that those persons involved in the ritual can replay later to recapture some of the experience • Children in high-risk contexts can access the emotional residue that is often produced by a parent ritually sharing a few minutes with him/her in a special activity as a protective factor in stressful times.

34. Why are rituals important? • Rituals and Family Organization • Rituals impart meaning regarding family identity. • Rituals clarify family roles, delineate boundaries which define family membership and relationships, and transmit information about family identity, even across generations (Wolin, Bennett, & Jacobs, 2003). • Children’s self-organization is intertwined with family-level organization (Sameroff, 1989).

35. Why are rituals important? • Rituals and Family Resilience • Resilient individuals seek out and utilize resources available to them as a means to cope and to thrive (Higgins, 1994). • “Rituals are comforting and healing for children. They allay anxiety and provide a sense of mastery in a harsh and incomprehensible world.” (O’Connor & Horowitz, 2003, p. 162)

36. What does the research say? • Rituals, such as typical bedtime routines, help children develop self-regulation skills early on during toddlerhood. • This is likely based on associations between family patterns of organization and self-organization in early childhood. • These effects likely contribute to adaptive functioning at older ages, such as optimal learning readiness.

37. Naturally occurring rituals “Any routine has the potential to become a ritual once it moves from an instrumental to a symbolic act.” (Fiese et al., 2003, p. 383) • Bedtime • Mealtime • Mornings • Departures and Greetings • Displays of affection • Culture and Spirituality

38. Family Bedtime Rituals and Emotion Regulation Among Toddlers

39. Bedtime Rituals and Emotion Regulation • Bedtime rituals which are consistent across toddlerhood promote greater regulatory competencies at 24 months of age, with a moderate effect size, though not necessarily more rapid rates of development in regulatory skills. • The 24-month timepoint may be of greatest interest as children in this sample experienced a small decrease in regulatory competencies at 24 months of age. Bocknek, Brophy-Herb, & Ravaeu, in progress

40. Impact of Consistent Bedtime Routines Across Toddlerhood on the Development of Emotion Regulation

41. Bedtime Rituals and Emotion Regulation • Consistency of parent-child interactions create opportunities for predictable patterns that allow children to practice regulation; Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu, & Mosier, 1993, Rogoff, 1990). • Bedtime rituals may serve as a protective factor for children, particularly during a time in development when children may be more vulnerable. • Results demonstrate modest effects, suggesting that bedtime rituals may be one aspect of larger patterns of family organization. • Bedtime rituals likely concretize for children these more abstract broader patterns of family organization.

42. Group Activity • Think about… • Bedtime • Mealtime • Mornings • Departures and Greetings • Displays of Affection • Culture and Spirituality

43. Summary • Supporting parents to reflect on opportunities to “make meaning” through rituals can strengthen families and support family health and well-being. • Simple rituals can be powerful protective factors for at-risk children, with long lasting benefits.

44. Play

45. Play When you see me combing the bushes for bugs, or packing my pockets with choice things I find, don’t pass it off as “just playing”. For you see, I’m learning as I play. I may be a scientist someday. When you see me engrossed in a puzzle or some “plaything” at school. Please don’t feel the time is wasted in “play”. For you see, I’m learning as I play. I’m learning to solve problems and to concentrate. I may be in business someday. When you see me cooking or tasting foods, please don’t think that because I enjoy it, it is “just playing”. I’m learning to follow directions and see differences. I may be a chef someday. When you see me learning to skip, hop, run and move my body, please don’t say I’m “just playing”. For you see, I’m learning as I play. I’m learning how my body works. I may be a doctor, nurse or athlete someday. When you ask me what I’ve done at school today, and I say, “I just played” Please don’t misunderstand me. For you see, I’m learning as I play. I’m learning to enjoy and be successful in my work. I’m preparing for tomorrow. Today, I am a child and my work is play. Just Playing By Anita Wadley When I’m building in the block room, please don’t say I’m “just playing” For you see, I’m learning as I play, about balance and shapes. Who knows? I may be an architect someday. When I am getting dressed up, setting the table, caring for the babies. Don’t get the idea I’m “just playing”. For you see, I’m learning as I play. I may be a mother or a father someday. When you see me up to my elbows in paint or standing at an easel, or moulding and shaping clay, please don’t let me hear you say “He is just playing” For you see, I’m learning as I play, I’m expressing myself and being creative. I may be an artist or an inventor someday. When you see me sitting in a chair “reading” to an imaginary audience. Please do not laugh and think I’m “just playing”. For you see, I’m learning as I play. I may be a teacher someday.

46. Catching Bubbles

47. Post-Traumatic Play • Children use play to both re-experience and make sense of traumatic, confusing, and difficult experiences. • Post-traumatic play is often distressing to adults. • Post-traumatic play may be repetitive, violent, and aggressive. • Play themes may be directly or symbolically related to traumas. Terr, 1994; Lieberman & Van Horn, 2008

48. Aggressive Play • Gun/War Play • Prevalence may predict increased risk of real aggressive/antisocial behavior, likely mediated by parents’/caregivers’ aggressive behaviors. • Likely differences between constructed and more concrete toy guns. • Superhero Play • Prevalence not related to more aggressive behaviors/outcomes. • Provide opportunities for imagination and creativity to develop. Holland, 2003; Parsons & Howe, 2006; Turner & Goldsmith, 1976; Watson & Peng, 1992

49. Resilient Play • Play narratives  • Prosocial • Varied • Creative • Relational • Empowering Carlsson-Paige & Levin, 1990; De-Souza & Raddell, 2011

50. Resilient Play Prosocial: Themes of helping, kindness, team work. Varied: Expose children to many kinds of toys. Creative: Toys can by multi-purpose. Relational: Look for opportunities to connect. Empowering: Children develop Integrated and confident sense of self