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CS 325: CS Hardware and Software Organization and Architecture

CS 325: CS Hardware and Software Organization and Architecture. Computer Evolution and Performance 1. Outline. Generations in Computer Organization Milestones in Computer Organization Von Neumann Architecture Moore’s Law CPU Transistor sizes and count Memory Hierarchy Performance

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CS 325: CS Hardware and Software Organization and Architecture

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  1. CS 325: CS Hardware and SoftwareOrganization and Architecture Computer Evolution and Performance 1

  2. Outline • Generations in Computer Organization • Milestones in Computer Organization • Von Neumann Architecture • Moore’s Law • CPU Transistor sizes and count • Memory Hierarchy • Performance • Cache Memory • Performance Issues and Solutions

  3. History – Generations in Computer Organization • Zeroth generation – mechanical computers (1642 – 1945) • Blaise Pascal’s mechanical calculator • First generation – vacuum tubes (1945 –1955) • ENIAC, Colossus • Second generation – transistors (1955 –1965) • Harwell CADET, TX-0 • Third generation – integrated circuits (1965 –1980) • IBM System/360 • Fourth generation – VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration ) (1980 - ?) • Microprocessors • Supercomputers

  4. History – Milestones in Computer Organization • 1642– Blaise Pascal, • Mechanical machine with gears used to add and subtract. • c. 1670 – Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, • Mechanical machine with gears used to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. • 1834 – Charles Babbage, • Analytical Engine • Ada Lovelace wrote its “assembler” • 1936 – Konrad Zuse, • Z1 • Calculator made of electromagnetic relays

  5. History – Milestones in Computer Organization • 1940’s – John Atanasoff, George Stibbitz, Howard Aiken, • Each worked independently on calculating machines with properties such as: • Binary arithmetic • Capacitors for memory • 1943 – Alan Turing and British Government, • COLOSSUS, the first electronic computer. • 1946 – John Mauchley, John Presper Eckert, • ENIAC, vacuum tubes • 1949 – Maurice Wilkes, • EDSAC, first stored program computer.

  6. History – Milestones in Computer Organization • 1952 – John von Neumann, • von Neumann architecture – most current computers use this basic design. • Stored program computer w/ shared memory for instructions and data. • 1950’s – Researchers at MIT, • Transistorized Experimental Computer Zero (TX-0), first computer to use transistors (3600 transistors). • 1960 – Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), • PDP-1, first mini computer • 1961 – IBM, • 1401, popular small business computer.

  7. History – Milestones in Computer Organization • 1962 – IBM, • 7094 and 709 using transistors. • Used mainly for scientific computing. • 1963 – Burroghs, • B500, first computer designed for a high-level language (Algol, precursor to C). • 1964 – Seymour Cray, Control Data Group, • 6600, 10x faster than IBM 7094 • Highly parallelized CPU • 1965 – PDP-8, • First mass-market mini computer. • Used a single bus.

  8. History – Milestones in Computer Organization • 1964 – IBM, • System/360, family of compatible computers (low end to high end). • First computers with multiprogramming. • Used integrated circuits (dozens of transistors on one “chip”). • 1974 – Intel, • 8080, first general purpose computer on a chip. • 1974 – Cray-1, • First vector computer (single instructions on vectors of numbers). • 1978 – DEC, • VAX, first 32-bit mini computer.

  9. History – Milestones in Computer Organization • 1978 – Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, • Apple personal computer • 1981 – IBM, • IBM PC becomes the most popular personal computer. • Used MS-DOS by Microsoft as OS. • CPU developed by Intel. • 1985 – MIPS (company), • MIPS, first commercial RISC computer. • 1987 – Sun Microsystems, • SPARC, popular RISC computer. • 1990 – IBM, • RS6000, first superscalar machine

  10. History – Milestones in Computer Organization • 1993 – Intel, • Pentium CPU released. • 32-bit, 60 Mhz • 3.2 million transistors • $878 • 1993 – NVIDIA is founded. • 1994 – Intel, • Pentium 2 CPU released. • 1999 – Intel, • Pentium 3 CPU released. • 32-bit, 550 Mhz

  11. History – Milestones in Computer Organization • 2003 – AMD, • Athlon 64 CPU is released. • 2005 – AMD, Intel, • Dual core CPU’s released.

  12. Computer and CPU Organization • Definition: • The terms processor, CPU, and computationalengine refer broadly to any mechanism that drives computation.

  13. Von Neumann Architecture • Stored Program/Data concept • Characteristic of most modern CPUs • Main memory stores programs (instructions) and data. • ALU operates on binary data. • Control unit interprets instructions from memory and passes information along to ALU.

  14. Von Neumann Architecture – Three Basic Components • CPU • Memory • I/O facilities • Control units • Busses All interact to form a complete computer

  15. Structure of Von Neumann Architecture

  16. Milestones in Computer Organization • Moore’s Law: • Number of transistors on a chip doubles every 18 months.

  17. Milestones in Computer Organization • Moore’s Law: • Increased density of components on chip. • Originally, thought number of transistors on a chip will double every year. • Since the 1970’s, development has slowed. Number of transistors doubles every 18 months. • Cost of chip has remained almost unchanged. • Higher packing density means shorter electrical path, giving higher performance. • Smaller size gives increased flexibility. • Reduced power and cooling requirements. • Fewer interconnections increases reliability.

  18. CPU Transistor Sizes - Intel • 8086 – 29K transistors, 3µm • 80186 – 29K transistors, 2µm • 80286 – 134k transistors, 1.5µm • 80386 – 855k transistors, 1µm • 80486 – 1.6m transistors, 0.6µm • Pentium 1 – 4.5m transistors, 0.35µm • Pentium 2 – 7.5m transistors, 0.35µm • Pentium 3 – 9.5m transistors, 0.25µm • Pentium 4 – 42m transistors, 0.18µm • Pentium m – 140m transistors, 0.13µm • Pentium D – 230m transistors, 90nm • Core 2 – 291m transistors, 65nm • Current Intel architecture: Core I series “Haswell” • I7: 1.4b transistors, 22nm

  19. Growth in CPU Transistor Count

  20. Memory Hierarchy Importance • 1980: No cache memory on CPU. • 1989: First Intel CPU that included cache memory. • 1995: 2-level cache on CPU. • 2003: 3-level cache on CPU. • 2013: 4-level cache on CPU. • Intel Haswell architecture w/ integrated Iris Pro Graphics

  21. How to Increase Performance? • Pipelining • On board cache memory • Branch prediction • Data flow analysis • Speculative execution

  22. PerformanceBalance • CPU performance increasing • Memory capacity increasing • Memory speed lagging behind CPU performance

  23. Core Memory • 1950’s – 1970’s • 1 core = 1 bit • Polarity determines logical “1” or “0” • Roughly 1Mhz clock rate. • Up to 32kB storage.

  24. Semiconductor Memory • 1970’s - Today • Fairchild • Size of a single core • i.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storage • Holds 256 bits • Non-destructive read, but volatile • SDRAM most common, uses capacitors. • Much faster than core • Today: 1.3 – 3.1 Ghz • Capacity approximately doubles each year. • Today: 64GB per single DIMM

  25. CPU (Logic) and Memory Performance Gap

  26. Solutions • Increase number of bits retrieved at one time • Make DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper” • Change DRAM interface • Cache • Reduce frequency of memory access • More complex cache and cache on chip • Increase interconnection bandwidth • High speed buses • Hierarchy of buses

  27. Improvements in CPU Organization and Architecture • Increase hardware speed of processor • Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size • More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate • Propagation time for signals reduced • Increase size and speed of caches • Dedicating part of processor chip • Cache access times drop significantly • Change processor organization and architecture • Increase effective speed of execution • Parallelism

  28. Problems with Clock Speed and Logic Density • Power • Power density increases with density of logic and clock speed • Dissipating heat • Resistor-Capacitor (RC) delay • Speed at which electrons flow limited by resistance and capacitance of metal wires connecting them • Delay increases as RC product increases • Wire interconnects thinner, increasing resistance • Wires closer together, increasing capacitance • Memory latency • Memory speeds lag processor speeds • Solution: • More emphasis on organizational and architectural approaches

  29. Intel CPU Performance

  30. Increased Cache Capacity • Typically two or three levels of cache between processor and main memory. • Chip density increased • More cache memory on chip • Faster cache access • Pentium chip devoted about 10% of chip area to cache. • Pentium 4 devotes about 50%.

  31. Increased Cache Capacity

  32. More Complex Execution Logic • Enable parallel execution of instructions • Pipeline works like assembly line • Different stages of execution of different instructions at same time along pipeline • Superscalar allows multiple pipelines within single processor • Instructions that do not depend on one another can be executed in parallel

  33. Diminishing Returns • Internal organization of processors complex • Can get a great deal of parallelism • Further significant increases likely to be relatively modest • Benefits from cache are reaching limit • Increasing clock rate runs into power dissipation problem • Some fundamental physical limits are being reached

  34. New Approach – Multiple Cores • Multiple processors on single chip • Large shared cache • Within a processor, increase in performance proportional to square root of increase in complexity • If software can use multiple processors, doubling number of processors almost doubles performance • So, use two simpler processors on the chip rather than one more complex processor • With two processors, larger caches are justified • Power consumption of memory logic less than processing logic

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