Intelligence: Spearman to Gardner – single or multiple intelligences?

1. Intelligence: Spearman to Gardner – single or multiple intelligences? Understanding Learning:MOD001256

2. Objectives: • Consider what we mean by intelligence. • Review key historical and contemporary theories of intelligence. • Spearman • Gardner • Consider how ideas about intelligence have impacted on approaches to learning.

3. What is intelligence?

4. Intelligence: definitions “Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world.” “The capacity to learn.” “The total knowledge a person has acquired.” “ The ability to adapt successfully to new situations and to the environment in general.” Woolfolk, Hughes, & Walkup, 2013, p.127

5. Intelligence • Intelligence is a controversial subject in learning and education. There is disagreement over what it is. • Is it a single, general ability or does it encompasses a range of aptitudes and skills? • Historically, concepts of intelligence have influenced education policy in terms of what schools children can attend and how schools are organised.

6. Why is it controversial?

7. Intelligence Theory One ability? British psychologist Charles Spearman (1927) – general intelligence is one mental attribute. General intelligence or the ‘g’ factor - influences performance on all cognitive tasks. Spearman’s research Identified that you need general intelligence to perform well in mental tests, plus some specific ability (e.g. recall in a mental maths test). Therefore, individuals vary in both general and specific abilities, but together these factors determine performance on a task. http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/spearman.shtmlhttp://human-nature.com/nibbs/03/spearman.html

8. Writing in a time of: Strict divisions in society • Social class • Gender • Race/Ethnicity • Attributed cognitive and social differences to biological differences • Social classes • Sex and gender • Race and ethnicity

9. Cattell-Horn theory (Cattell, 1963, Horn, 1998) Intelligence Theory • Fluid Intelligence (nature) • Innate/biological, culture free and non-verbal • e.g. think and act quickly, solve problems and store short term memories. • Increases until adolescence (as brain develops, then declines with age). • Crystallised intelligence (nurture) • Acquired and can increase throughout lifespan because it includes the learning of new skills, facts and knowledge. • By using fluid intelligence to solve problems, we develop crystallised Intelligence. • Many tasks (e.g. mathematical reasoning) use both fluid and crystallised intelligence, hence a mix of nature and nurture. • http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/rcattell.shtml

10. Gardner (1983, 2003)Multiple Intelligences (MI) Intelligence Theory Gardner viewed intelligence as the ability to solve problems or outcomes that are valued by culture. He proposed eight intelligences: • logical-mathematical • linguistic (verbal) • musical • spatial • bodily kinaesthetic • interpersonal (understanding others) • intrapersonal (understanding self) • naturalist (systems, patterns) Critiques: • Intelligences rarely operate independently. • Need to be used at the same time and tend to complement each other as people develop skills or solve problems.

11. Gardner Multiple Intelligences Intelligence Theory • Callahan, Tomlinson and Plucker (1997) research: Identified that there was not an achievement difference when children were taught using a Multiple Intelligence approach. (Cited in Woolfolk, Hughes & Walkup, 2013, p.131) • Gardener’s theory does not prove there is no general ‘g’ intelligence, but uses his theory to question how useful the general ‘g’ is as an explanation for human achievement. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm

12. Intelligence Theory Emotional Intelligence (EI) • Goleman (1995) popularised EI – focusing on competencies for leadership • Mayer and Cobb (2000) 4 categories • Perceiving (ability to ‘read’ signals/non-verbal cues from people, communication, leadership skills) • Integrating (emotions into your thinking), as a way of gaining understanding about your own emotions, so these can be communicated to others when relevant) • Managing emotions (control anger and impulses, delay instant gratification) Critique: set of personality traits rather than capabilities. • (Cited in Woolfolk, Hughes & Walkup, 2013, p.133)

13. Intelligence Theory Emotional Intelligence • Petrides, Frederickson and Furnham (2004) suggest that emotional intelligence is linked to scholastic achievement and deviant behaviour at school. They suggest that emotional intelligence needs to be considered in assessment and intervention programmes in schools. (Cited in Woolfolk, Hughes & Walkup, 2013, p.133) European project into anti-bullying: http://iamnotscared.pixel-online.org/index.php http://www.actagainstbullying.org/

14. What is countedas intelligent • Depends on the purposes of education: • Educational • Economic • Social • To prepare for: • Role • Identity

15. How is intelligence tested? • Alfred Binet (1904) develops diagnostic tests to calculate ‘mental age’ with aim of supporting low achieving pupils. • The tests were designed to be able to identify the intellectual skills that predict how well a child will learn in school. • Binet’s test was subsequently developed into Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – Stanford-Binet test. IQ scores compare mental and chronological ages. Deviation IQ IQ score based on an individual’s performance with the average performance of others in a particular age group. • IQ correlates significantly to school achievement.

16. Intelligence: Heredity or Environmental? • Is intelligence a potential which is limited or enhanced by our genetic make up (nature)? • Is intelligence influenced purely by experience and environment (nurture)? • Bouchard (1979) – Minnesota Twin Family Study: Identical twins reared apart. https://mctfr.psych.umn.edu/research/UM%20research.html

17. IQ & Twin Family studies Correlations: • The same person tested twice 87% • Identical twins reared together 86% • Identical twins reared apart 76% • Fraternal twins reared together 55% • Biological siblings 47% • Parents and children living together 40% • Parents and children living apart 31% • Adopted children living together 0% • Adopted children living apart 0% Inheritance is correlated with variance of IQ scores: Just being in the same family (adoptees) has no effect (From Ridley, 1999, p.83)

18. How has intelligence impacted on UK schools? • Sir Cyril Burt (1883-1971) advised the UK government on developing the 11 plus test for the Tripartite education system 1944: grammar, secondary technical and secondary modern schools. • 11+ is based on the assumption that it is possible to assess at 10 or 11 years of age what children can achieve at 15 or 16. This assumption takes the perspective that intelligence is fixed. What is the argument against this assumption. • Grammar schools still exist that require children to pass an entrance exam to gain a place at the school. Is this fair?

19. How has intelligence impacted on the English school system? Ability grouping • Streaming: separating pupils by ability for all subjects within school • Setting: separating pupils by ability for specific subjects – English, Maths and sciences. • What might be the advantages? • What might be the disadvantage? • Do you agree with it?

20. Ability grouping in Maths “Schools [in England] are now deciding which children can and cannot do maths when they are only 4 years old, and research has shown that when children are put into low sets, 88% stay there until they leave school.” (Boaler, 2009, p.32) “The drive to label and prejudge children in maths puts England out of synch with the rest of the world. In countries where students are mathematical high achievers, such as Finland and Japan, schools communicate the idea that everyone can be good at maths and teachers work to make sure that happens.” (Boaler, 2009, p.34) Boaler, J., 2009. The Elephant in the Classroom: Helping Children Learn and Love Maths. London:Souvenir Press

21. Adoption in settings • What does this mean in terms of: • Cognitive • Emotional • Social • Role • Identity development?

22. References • Mayer, J., & Cobb, C., 2000. Educational Policy on Emotional Intelligence: Does It Make Sense?. Educational Psychology Review, 12 (2), p.163-183. [Accessed 16 October 2012] [Online] Available at: http://www.pacific.edu/documents/library/acrobat/mayer-ed%20policy%20on%20ei-does%20it%20make%20sense%20x.pdf • Olson, M., Hergenhahn, B.R., 2009. An Introduction to the Theories of Learning. 8th ed. New Jersey: Pearson • Petrides, K. V., Frederickson, N & Furnham, A., 2004. The role of trait emotional intelligence in academic performance and deviant behavior at school. Personality and Individual Differences. 36 p 277-293. [Online] Available at: http://www.psychometriclab.com/admins/files/PAID%20%282004%29%20-%20T_EI.pdf [Accessed 16 October 2012] • Ridley, M., 1999. Genome. The autobiography of a species in 23 chapters. London: Fourth Estate • Woolfolk, A., Hughes, M., and Walkup, V., 2013. Psychology in Education. Harlow: Pearson Education

23. Resources Check the Web Links section on the VLE for web page links for information on intelligence theory. Books Pages 127 – 143 in Woolfolk, A., Hughes, M., and Walkup, V. 2013. Psychology in Education. Harlow: Pearson Education Pages 249-253 in Bartlett, S. & Burton, D. 2012. Introduction to Educational Studies. London: Sage Publishing Limited.