Introduction to sociology

1. Introduction to sociology Part II: Social Groups and Social Control

2. Preindustrial societies • Societies are categorized as preindustrial, which can include hunting and gathering, horticultural, pastoral, or agricultural; industrial; or postindustrial. • The culture and social structure of a society are greatly affected by the way the society provides for basic needs. For example, hunting and gathering societies are small and nomadic; they are based on cooperation and sharing with little concept of ownership or status.

3. Industrial & postindustrial societies • Industrial societies differ from earlier societies in that they depend on science and technology to produce basic goods and services. • In postindustrial societies the economic emphasis is on providing services and information. Some sociologists believe that the transition from an industrial to a postindustrial society has increased social instability.

4. Primary & secondary groups • A group is composed of people who share several features: they must be in regular contact with one another; share some ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving; take one another's behavior into account; and have one or more interests or goals in common. • Groups are classified according to how they develop and function. Primary groups meet emotional and support needs, while secondary groups are impersonal and goal oriented.

5. Other groups & networks • Reference groups are important in helping us evaluate ourselves and form identities. The formation of in-groups and out-groups demonstrates how groups form boundaries. A social network consists of all of a person's social relationships.

6. Types of social interaction • Five types of social interaction are basic to group life. Cooperation occurs when individuals or groups combine their efforts to reach a common goal. Conflict can arise when groups or individuals work against one another. In social exchange, one person voluntarily does something for another and expects a reward in return. Coercion implies forcing others to give in, while conformity is behavior that matches group expectations.

7. Formal & informal organizations • Two other types of groups are formal organizations and informal organizations. • A formal organization is deliberately created to achieve one or more long-term goals. The most easily recognizable examples of formal organizations are bureaucracies. • Informal organizations are groups within a formal organization in which personal relationships are guided by norms, rituals, and sentiments that are not part of the formal organization.

8. Deviance & social control • Deviance refers to behavior that departs from societal or group norms, but it is difficult to define because not everyone agrees on what should be considered deviant behavior. • Deviance may be either positive—involving behavior that overconforms to expectations, or negative—involving behavior that underconforms to accepted norms. • All societies employ various means of social control to promote conformity to norms.

9. Functionalism & deviance • According to functionalists, deviance has both negative and positive consequences for society. • A negative effect of deviance is that it erodes trust; • Benefits of deviance to society can be that it acts as a temporary safety valve and increases unity within a society or group. • The strain theory and control theory of deviance are based on the functionalist perspective.

10. Symbolic interactionism & deviance • Symbolic interactionists support the differential association theory of deviance—that deviance is transmitted through socialization. • This perspective also yields the labeling theory, which states that an act is deviant only if other people identify it so. • Symbolic interactionists also distinguish degrees of deviance—primary deviance describes isolated acts of deviance by a person, while secondary deviance refers to deviance as a lifestyle and a personal identity.

11. Conflict theory & deviance • The conflict perspective looks at deviance in terms of social inequality and power. The rich and powerful use their positions to determine which acts are deviant and how deviants should be punished. • Supporters of this theory believe that minorities receive unequal treatment in the American criminal justice system.

12. Crime & Punishment • Crime statistics in the United States are gathered by the FBI and the Census Bureau. • Juvenile crime—legal violations committed by those under 18 years of age—are the third largest category of crime in the United States. • Various methods are employed to try to discourage crime, including deterrence, retribution, incarceration, and rehabilitation.