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A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development 6e. Chapter Two: Biological Beginnings. John W. Santrock. The Evolutionary Perspective. Natural selection Evolutionary process where the best adapted individuals in a species survive and reproduce Natural selection and adaptive behavior
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A Topical Approach toLife-Span Development 6e Chapter Two: Biological Beginnings John W. Santrock
The Evolutionary Perspective • Natural selection • Evolutionary process where the best adapted individuals in a species survive and reproduce • Natural selection and adaptive behavior • Darwin: On the Origin of Species (1859) • All organisms must adapt in life
The Evolutionary Perspective • Evolutionary psychology • Emphasizes adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the fittest in shaping behavior • Evolution explains human physical features and behaviors
The Evolutionary Perspective • Evolutionary developmental psychology • Explaining humans and their behavior • Larger brains and more complex societies • Takes longest of all mammals to mature • Some evolved mechanisms of adaptation not compatible with modern society
The Evolutionary Perspective • Evolution and life-span development • Natural selection • Benefits decrease with age • Failures: harmful conditions and non-adaptive characteristics • As adults weaken biologically, culture-based needs increase • Alternative: bi-directional view
Figure 2.2 - Baltes’ View of Evolution and Culture Across the Life Span
Genetic Foundations of Development • The collaborative gene • Nucleus of a human cell: • Chromosomes:Thread-like structures • DNA:Double helix-shaped molecule • Genes:Units of hereditary information • Human Genome Project • 20,500 genes in humans • Genetic expression and inherited traits
Nucleus (center of cell) contains chromosomes and genes Gene: a segment of DNA (spiraled double chain) containing the hereditary code Chromosomes are threadlike structures composed of DNA molecules Figure 2.3 - Cells, Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
Genetic Foundations of Development • Genes and chromosomes • Mitosis:Cell nucleus duplicates • Meiosis: cell division forms gametes • Fertilization:Egg and sperm form zygote • Genetic variability in the population • X and Y chromosomes determine sex
Genetic Foundations of Development • Genes and chromosomes • Sources of variability • Each zygote is unique • Identical and fraternal twins • Muted genes due to environmental agent • Genotype: all of one’s genetic makeup • Phenotype: observable characteristics
Genetic Foundations of Development • Genetic principles • Dominant and recessive genes • Sex-linked genes • X-linked inheritance for males and female • Genetic imprinting • Imprinted gene dominates • Poly-genetically determined characteristics • Many genes interact to influence a trait
How brown-haired parents can have a blond-haired child: the gene for blond hair is recessive Brown hair B Blond hair b Father B b Mother B b B B B b B b b b
Genetic Foundations of Development • Chromosomal and gene-linked abnormalities • Down syndrome: 2 copies of chromosome 21 • Sex-linked abnormalities • Klinefelter syndrome: XXY instead of XY • Fragile X syndrome: X in boys is fragile, breaks • Turner syndrome: Girl is XO instead of XX • XYY syndrome: Link to criminal males unproven
Genetic Foundations of Development • Chromosomal and gene-linked abnormalities • Gene-linked abnormalities • Phenylketonuria (PKU) – treated by diet • Sickle-cell anemia – red blood cells affected • Cystic fibrosis, diabetes, hemophilia, spina bifida, Tay-sachs and Huntington diseases • Can sometimes be compensated for by other genes or events
Heredity and Environment Interaction:The Nature-Nurture Debate • Behavior genetics • Studies genetic impact on traits and development • Tests for genetic/environmental influences • Twin studies • Shared and nonshared factors • Adoption studies • Effects of biological and adoptive parents
Heredity and Environment Interaction:The Nature-Nurture Debate • Heredity-environment correlations • Passive genotype-environment • Parents provide/guide child’s interests • Evocative genotype-environment • Some traits elicit more adult responses • Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment • Child seeks/selects favorable environments
Heredity and Environment Interaction:The Nature-Nurture Debate • Heredity-environment correlations • Heredity directs environmental experiences • In infancy, environment mostly parent-controlled • As child ages, experiences extend beyond family • Some environments can mute or strengthen genetic traits • Critics: heredity gets too much credit
Heredity and Environment Interaction:The Nature-Nurture Debate • Epigenetic view • Development is ongoing • Bi-directional interchange of heredity/environment • Infancy • Positive and negative environmental experiences can modify genetic activity
Prenatal Development • Course of prenatal development • Germinal period: Creation of fertilized egg • Embryonic period: Cell differentiation of embryo • Endoderm – Digestive/Respiratory systems • Ectoderm – Nervous system, sensory receptors • Mesoderm – Circulatory, bones, muscles, excretory and reproductive systems • Organagenesis: Organ formation
Prenatal Development • Course of prenatal development • Fetal period: lasts for 7 months, 3 trimesters • Brain: • 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) • Neural tube formed from ectoderm • Birth defects can cause death, retardation • Neurogenesis – New cells formed • Neuronal migration – Cell specialization
Prenatal Diagnostic Tests • Tests for abnormality • Ultrasound sonography • Fetal MRI: Better than ultrasound • Chorionic villus sampling: Samples placenta • Amniocentesis: Samples amniotic fluid • Maternal blood screening (triple screen test) • Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD): Tests fetal cells (DNA) in mother’s blood
Hazards to Prenatal Development • Teratogens • Agents causing birth defects • Severity of damage affected by • Dose • Genetic susceptibility • Time of exposure • Prescription, nonprescription drugs
Hazards to Prenatal Development • Teratogens • Psychoactive drugs • Caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamines, marijuana, and heroin • Alcohol and fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) • Nicotine’s link to SIDS, ADHD, low birth weight • Paternal smoking during pregnancy
Figure 2.12 - Teratogens and Timing of Their Effects on Prenatal Development
Hazards to Prenatal Development • Other prenatal factors • Incompatible blood types (Rh factor) • Maternal diseases • STDs, HIV and AIDS; Rubella measles • Diet and nutrition (vitamins, folic acid); weight • Toxins in foods, mercury in fish • Maternal age, emotional states, and stress • Environmental hazards (toxins, waste)
Prenatal Care • Prenatal care varies around the world • Quality of medical care visits, education • Low-birth weight and infant mortality rates • Outside the United States: Free/Low cost prenatal care, liberal maternity leave • Impact of cultural/ethnic beliefs about pregnancy
Birth • Birth process • Stages of birth • Labor occurs in three stages: • Uterine contractions • Baby’s head begins to enter birth canal • Afterbirth (shortest stage) • Birth attendants vary across cultures • Midwifery • Doula
Birth • Methods of childbirth • Natural childbirth: Reduce maternal pain through education (breathing, relaxation techniques) • Prepared childbirth: Lamaze method • Nonmedicated techniques to reduce pain • Waterbirth • Massage, acupuncture, hypnosis • Music therapy
Birth • Methods of childbirth • Cesarean delivery (surgical procedure) • Breech position birth • Benefits and risks continue being debated • From fetus to newborn • Vernix caseosa (protective skin grease at birth) • Baby must withstand stress of birth
Birth • Assessing the newborn • Apgar Scale: Heart, reflexes, and color • Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (BNBAS) • A sensitive index of neurological competence • Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) • Analysis of behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities
Birth • Low birth weight and preterm infants • Low birth weight: Less than 5 ½ lbs at birth • Very low: Less than 3 lbs at birth • Extremely low: Under 2 lbs at birth • Preterm: Born in 35 weeks or less after conception • Small for date (small for gestational age infants) • Birth weight below normal for gestational age
Birth • Low birth weight • Incidences • Not all preterm babies are low birth weight • High rates in developing countries from poverty • Rates increasing in the United States in last two decades • Lowest rates in Nordic countries
Birth • Low birth weight • Causes • Poor maternal health and nutrition • Maternal diseases and infections • Cigarette smoking is leading cause • Weekly hormone injections can lower rates • Consequences • Learning difficulties, more behavioral problems
Birth • Nurturing preterm infants • Intensive enrichment (medical, educational) • Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) interventions • Kangaroo care: skin-to-skin contact • Stabilizes bodily functions (i.e. breathing) • Better sleep, weight gain, more alertness • Massage therapy
Birth • Bonding • Special part of parent-infant relationship • Needs to occur shortly after birth • Early emotional attachments may create healthy interactions after leaving hospital • Rooming-in arrangements offered • Massages and tactile stimulation for premature infants affect development