260 likes | 265 Views
This chapter explores the biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender and sexuality. It discusses concepts such as gender roles, gender typing, socialization, gender stereotypes, and the similarities and differences between genders in physical, cognitive, and socioemotional aspects. Several key studies and theories are examined to provide a comprehensive understanding of this topic.
E N D
A Topical Approach toLife-Span Development 6e Chapter Twelve: Gender and Sexuality John W. Santrock
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Basic concepts • Gender: Characteristics of being female or male • Sex:Designates the biological aspects of being female or male • Gender role: Set of expectations prescribing how females and males should act, feel, and think • Gender typing: Process by which children acquire thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for their gender
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Chromosomes: 23rd pair with XX or XY • Hormones • Estrogens • Influence development of female physical sex characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle • Androgens • Promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex hormones early in development p. 372 • Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) • Androgen-insensitive males • Pelvic field defect • Failed sex reassignment
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Sex hormones and behavior • Levels of testosterone are correlated with sexual behavior in boys during puberty. • Violent male criminals have above-average levels of testosterone. • Professional football players have higher levels of testosterone than ministers do.
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Social influences • Differences due to social experiences • Social role theory: Gender differences result from contrasting roles of men and women • In most cultures, women have less power and control fewer resources than men. • As women adapted to roles with less power and status, they showed more cooperative, less dominant profiles than men.
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Social influences • Differences due to social experiences • Social cognitive theory of gender — gender development results from observation and imitation, use of rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviors • Do Parents Really Treat Boys and Girls Differently? • Mothers’ socialization strategies p.374 • Fathers’ socialization strategies • Exposure to media, peers, other adults in culture
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Cognitive influences • Gender schema theory • Gender schema theory states that gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture. • A gender schema is a mental framework that organizes the world in terms of male and female. • Children are internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing schemas.
Figure 12.2 - Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations
Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Gender similarities and differences • Physical differences • Body fat, height • Females • have longer life expectancy • less likely to develop mental or physical disorders • Resistant to infections, more elastic blood vessels • Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure
Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Gender similarities and differences • Physical differences • Female brains are smaller, have more folds • Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men • Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is larger in males • Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more activity in females
Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Cognitive similarities and differences • Some claim males better at math and visuospatial skills and females better at verbal skills • Others claim no differences or exaggerated • National standardized tests • Boys slightly better at math and science • Girls significantly better at reading and writing • Overall, girls superior students to boys • More males placed in special/remedial classes
Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Aggression • Males more physically aggressive in all cultures • Females may be verbally aggressive; use relational aggression more than men • Self-Regulation • Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral problems • Controversies over psychological differences
Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Meta-analysis • Gender differences: small to nonexistent • Physical aggression differences were moderate • Largest difference in motor skills favoring males • Males more sexually active than females
Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Gender in context • Gender varies across contexts • Males more likely to help in perceived danger • Females more likely to volunteer to help with child • Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys • Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and turn anger into aggression • Cultural backgrounds influence socialization
Exploring Sexuality • Sex in America Survey • Heterosexual attitudes and behavior • Different categories for frequency of sex • One third have sex twice a week • One third a few times a month • One third a few times a year or not at all • Married couples have sex more often • Most couples enjoy traditional sex • Adultery is exception, not the rule • Men think about sex more than women • Most lead conservative sexual lives
Exploring Sexuality • Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), affect about one of every six U.S. adults • Gonorrhea • Syphilis • Chlamydia • Genital Herpes • HPV — causes genital warts • HIV and AIDS — sexually-transmitted disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Exploring Sexuality • Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) • Protecting against STIs • Education and development of effective drug treatments • Only safe behavior is abstinence • Know your and your partner’s risk status • Obtain screening tests for STIs • Have protected, not unprotected, sex • Don’t have sex with multiple partners
Sexuality through the Life Span • Child sexuality • Majority of children engage in some sex play • Usually with friends or siblings • Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals • Most motivated by curiosity • Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in elementary school years
Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity • Most have insatiable curiosity about sex • Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have times of vulnerability and confusion • Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality
Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Timing and frequency of sexual behaviors • U.S. study: • African American and inner-city youth most active • Asian American youth most restricted • Males more active than females • Casual oral sex is common, increasing; believed to be safer and not really “having sex”
Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Personal risk factors • Emotionally unprepared for sexual experiences • Other risky behaviors linked to early sexual activity • Drug use, delinquency, school-related problems • Risky behavior patterns can continue as disorders in emerging adulthood • Contextual factors • SES, parenting styles, peer factors • Having sibling engaging in early activity
Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Cognitive factors are linked to sexual risk taking • Contraceptive use can reduce risks; increased use of contraceptives by adolescents • Age affects choice and consistency of use • 3 million U.S. adolescents acquire STIs annually • U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of highest rates in developed world • Negative consequences for teen mother and child
80 60 40 Births per 1,000 women 15 to 19 years old 20 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year Figure 12.7 - Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy
Sexuality through the Life Span • Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy • Health risks for mother and child • Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality, neurological problems, childhood illness • Young mothers more likely to • Drop out of school; were low achievers in school • Have history of conduct problems • Come from low-income backgrounds • Live in poverty