“ The United States In Congress Assembled ”: America under the Articles of Confederation

1. “The United States In Congress Assembled”: America under the Articles of Confederation

3. Articles of Confederation  • Richard Henry Lee/John Dickinson • Passed by the 2nd Continental Congress in 1777, but not ratified by the states until 1781. • Congresswas the dominant force (no separate executive or federal courts), but it was hobbled by rules:  • All bills required 2/3 vote for passage • Any amendment = unanimous vote • Each state had 1 vote. • No power to regulate commerce • No tax enforcement power (states paid taxes voluntarily).

4. Land Cessions • Geographical knowledge of North America was incomplete when colonies were founded. • Many were established by royal proclamation or charter that defined their boundaries as stretching "from sea to sea"; others did not have western boundaries established at all. • ended up with theoretical extents that overlapped each other, and conflicted with the claims and settlements established by other European powers. • With Union, states must give up claims! • New York vs. Virginia = the biggest problem • Jan 2, 1781 – Virginia Cession unblocks the logjam

6. Other Problems of the West • GB abandoned their Indian allies who didn’t consider themselves defeated • Pressure of American Expansion • GB troops still in posts in the NW territories, encourage raids on American settlers • Diplomatic problems – some westerners threatened to rejoin GB!

7. First President? • Peyton Randolph • 1st President of the Continental Congress • John Hancock • President of the Continental Congress when Declaration was Adopted • Samuel Huntington • “President of the United States in Congress Assembled” (AOC) • George Washington • “President of the United States” (Constitution)

8. New Political Dynamics • “Pro-democracy” efforts gained. • Loss of 80,000 Loyalists = loss of balance? • Entail and primogeniture repealed, weakening aristocracy. • Expansion of voting rights, citizen participation • Two new political cliques (not parties.. Yet!) • Republicans – liberalish – believe in rule of the people – the voice of the masses should drive decisions • Whigs – conservatives – believe in rule of the educated elite, insulate the government from popular mood swings

9. Land Ordinance of 1785(drafted by TJ) • NW Territory land sold to pay off debt.

10. Northwest Ordinance of 1787 • revision of 1785 + a little more • 1. Territories established, which could eventually become states on an equal basis with the original 13. • Needed a minimum of 60,000 inhabitants. • 2. Slavery forbidden in Northwest. (had been rejected in 1785, but added back now)

11. Social Adjustments… • African Americans • Vermont – 1777 abolishes slavery • 1776-1786 – all states but GA and SC prohibit or heavily tax the international slave trade • Rise of free black population with schools, churches, other institutions • Personalities • Benjamin Banneker • Phillis Wheatley

12. Religious Change  • Church of England ruined, replaced by Episcopal Church, separate from England. •  Democratic spirit encouraged spread of “frontier faiths” (Methodist, Baptist). •  Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom • Strong statement on separation of church and state written by TJ.

13. Foreign and Domestic Problems   • The U.S. had difficulty commanding respect from allies or enemies  • Britain refused to send an ambassador, to make a commercial treaty, or repeal the Navigation Laws. Trading posts along Canadian border source of trouble with Indians. • Spain seized lands granted to the U.S. by Britain and harassed trade on the Mississippi River. • France demanded repayment of loans made during the Revolution and restricted trade with the West Indies.

14. Domestic disputes arise • Some states refused to pay any taxes, while interest on the public debt grew and the nation's credit dwindled. •  States began levying duties on each other's products and quarreling over boundaries.

15. Economic Stresses  • Some Loyalist land was broken up into parcels for farming, sold off for $... • Currency totals $400 million, but is subject to great inflation • Fixed income vs. inflation… • 1787, $167 of paper money = $1 in specie • Food Riots in several major cities… • March 1783: Newburgh Mutiny – GW puts down a mutiny by saying: • "Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray but almost blind in the service of my country."

16. Economic Growth? • Immediate economic problems resulted from severing ties with Britain  • Commerce with GB almost completely halted • Speculation and profiteering during the war = inflation. • Congress unable to control effects !!! • Economic causes of war had led to distaste for taxes, further weakening Congress' ability to take action. • After the downturn, postwar trade with GB returns to earlier levels in the 1780s • Exports abroad surpass previous levels, but represent a smaller part of the total economic activity… • Domestic economy flourishes! • Trade moves inland – ports with no inland access go into decline…

17. Problems in the State Legislatures? • 1780s – James Madison – a “spirit of locality” in the state legislatures is destroying “the aggregate interests of the community.” • Power struggles with Governors, Courts • Property Rights • Currency • Debtors rights acts

18. Strengths of AOC • State governments are powerful, can make laws appropriate for local needs • The Central Government can: • Conduct foreign relations • Maintain maritime trade • Regulate Indian trade • Manage Western territory

19. Weaknesses of AOC • No Executive to provide leadership • No federal courts • Can not levy taxes • Can not ratify amendments without unanimous consent • Can not raise an Army • Can not regulate interstate commerce • Boundary disputes (see next slide!)

20. Shay’s Rebellion (1786) • 1783: State land taxes rise • Veterans return: most people have little money • Violence breaks out in western Massachusetts with frustrated farmers losing their farms due to mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies.  • 1786: Daniel Shays leads 1000, seizes the courthouse • State asks Central Government to send in help: there is no Army, no money to pay for it, no other states willing to get involved! • State puts down rebels alone with force (killing three), but the win many seats in the next election – tips balance in state legislature! • Leaders throughout the nation worried about the potential of domestic unrest. • Reveals weakness of the Articles of Confederation.

21. Call for Reform of the Articles • Annapolis Convention, • called to deal with interstate commerce squabbling, issues arising from Shays Rebellion • instead requested a convention to meet in Philadelphia to deal with reforming the Articles. • Alex Hamilton makes a name for himself…

22. “Miracle at Philadelphia”:The Constitutional Convention

23. Philadelphia Convention • Open agreement secretly arrived at--Washington's plea • Intent of the Convention: • Economic-- protect property rights and make America safe from democracy. • Idealistic--make a perfect Union • Pragmatic--dealing with the question of sovereignty. Placing common interests over regional or personal concerns.

24. The Participants • 55 delegates from 12 states • Young (average age 42) • professional (over half were lawyers) • men of economic substance (remember it’s a volunteer job!) • Many were Revolutionary War veterans • Absent: Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Patrick Henry, other Revolutionary War heroes. • The “Big Names” who went in with notoriety • 1) Washington--president of the convention • 2) Madison--researched every previous republic • a) Large republic is not only possible, it's preferred • b) Popularly elected officials with sovereignty in the hands of the people, not the states • 3) Franklin--81 years old. The steadying influence. Sick, old, but well-respected by all.

25. The Compromises • Virginia Plan or Large States Plan • (Edmund Randolph) • 2 house legislature with representation based on population for both • President and courts chosen by legislature • New Jersey Plan or Small States Plan • (William Patterson) • Congress with each state having 1 vote (like AOC) • separate executive and judicial branches • increased powers of Congress • Great Compromise (Connecticut Plan) • Bicameral legislature representing both people and states • Lower house membership dependent on population • Upper house with two members from each state • All revenue bills must begin in lower house

26. Three-Fifths Compromise • Non-slavery states wanted slaves counted for taxation, but not representation and wanted an end to importation of slaves • Slave states wanted slaves counted for representation, but not taxation and no interference with slave trade by the federal government • THE AGREEMENT: • 60% of slaves counted for representation and taxation; • no Congressional interference with slavery for 20 years • Commerce Compromise • Cotton and tobacco producing states wanted restriction of taxes on exports and all commerce bills to be passed by a two-thirds vote of Congress • Northern industrial states wanted federal tariffs to keep up out cheaper European products and raise revenues for the government. • THE AGREEMENT: • no tax on exports, • simple majority needed to pass commerce bills

27. Ratification • Only 9 of the 13 were needed for the Constitution to take effect • Because of opposition from state legislatures, conventions elected by the people were given authority to approve or reject Constitution. • Federalists vs. Antifederalists • Most Federalists were wealthy and well-educated and sought the creation of a more powerful central government • Most Antifederalists were farmers who were loyal primarily to their state governments • Feared taxation power of federal government • Republican government could not rule a large nation • Federalist Papers • New York – Jay, Hamilton, Madison • Written to convince NY to ratify! • most influential political literature of the time • Argued that limitations on governmental power were built into the Constitution • Need for strength to earn respect abroad • Promise of Bill of Rights added to the Constitution helped persuade opponents to ratify it.