Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development

1. Chapter 2Theories of Human Development

2. Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development • Theory: Ideas proposed to describe/explain certain phenomena • Organizes facts/observations • Guides collection of new data • Should be internally consistent • Falsifiable: hypothesis can be tested • Supported by data

4. Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory • Instincts and unconscious motivation • Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (Libido) • Id: Instinctual nature of humans • Ego: rational and objective • Superego: internalized moral standards • A dynamic personality system • Regular conflicts between the three parts

5. Freud’s Psychosexual Development • Child moves through 5 stages • Stages result from conflict between Id & Superego • Conflict creates anxiety • Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms • Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

6. Erik Erikson • Most influential neo-Freudian • Some differences with Freud • Less emphasis on sexual urges • More emphasis on rational ego • More positive and adaptive view of human nature • Believed development continues through adulthood

9. Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory • Strengths • Awareness of unconscious motivation • Emphasized important early experience • Neo-Freudians have been influential • Weaknesses • Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable • Not supported by research

10. Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson • Strengths • Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature • Interaction of biological & social influences • Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still most relevant • Weaknesses • Sometimes vague and difficult to test • Does not explain how development comes about

11. Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning • Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based on observable behavior • Tabula Rasa: Environmental view • Association learning • UCS: built-in, unlearned stimulus • UCR: automatic, unlearned response • CS: causes learned response • CR: learned response

12. Figure 2.3

13. Figure 2.2

14. Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning • Probability of behavior based on environmental consequences • Reinforcement • Pleasant consequence • Increases probability • Punishment • Decreases probability • Unpleasant, aversive

15. Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory • Formerly called social learning theory • Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc. • Cognitive emphasis: observational learning • BoBo doll studies • Model praised or punished • Child learned to imitate rewarded model • Vicarious reinforcement

16. Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses • Strengths • Precise and testable theory • Carefully controlled experiments • Practical applications across lifespan • Weaknesses • Inadequate account of lifespan changes • Ignored genetic and maturational processes

17. Piaget: Cognitive Developmental Theory • Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment • Constructivism: Understanding based on experience • Interactionist • Both biological maturation and experience required for progress • At each new stage, children think in a qualitatively different way

19. Cognitive Developmental Theory • Strengths • Well-accepted by developmentalists • Well-researched, mostly supported • Influenced education and parenting • Weaknesses • Ignores motivation and emotion • Stages not universal – esp. last one

20. Contextual/Systems Theories • Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural perspective • Cognitive development is a social process • Problem solving aided by dialogues • Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems • Genes, neural activity, behavior, and environment mutually influential • Normal genes and normal early experiences most helpful