Using academic vocabulary IV : evaluative language & reviewing the literature

1. Using academic vocabulary IV : evaluative language & reviewing the literature Week 5 Feb. 16

2. Agenda • Reviewing the Literature • Academic Vocabulary IV • Evaluative Language

3. Reviewing the literature • Where in your writing do you cite sources? • Introduction? Methods? Results? Discussion? • All are possible, but it depends on the field and type of writing • What are the purposes of citing? (besides plagiarism!) • Acknowledge intellectual property rights • Show respect for previous scholars • Give your own arguments greater authority • Help friends and colleagues (increases the “impact factor” of journals) (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 340)

4. Reviewing the literature • Tense choice implications are subtle • Can indicate who is the agent or not • Can make no reference to agency • Can indicate the distance of the researcher to our own opinion or research • Can indicate if the finding should be taken in the context of the single study or as a larger generalization. • Look at a journal you brought and find examples of this. • Now look at your own. P344-345 HO

5. Common uses of past/present • Huang (2007) investigated the causes of airport delays. • Action (Huang does something) • Developed • Modeled • Conducted • studied • In Huang’s (2007) investigations, he concludes that….. • Saying/thinking (Huang says/thinks something) • Believes • Assumes • Posits • Argues • Opines • Views • Points • Provides… • Past is often used to indicate a contrast of past belief to current: • Huang (2007) concluded that…, but more recent investigations reveal…

6. Reviewing the literature • Integrated citations versus parenthetical citations: • According to Suarez et al. (2010), the causes of business failure are closely related to the ratio of working capital, retained earnings, and sales. • Fang’s research shows that reduced working capital and retained earnings are interrelated (Fang, 2007). • Why was the first integrated, and the second not? • What are other ways of giving credit? • Under what circumstances are one or the other preferred?

7. Reviewing the literature • Why vary citation patterns? • Give it a try • The Origins of the First Scientific Articles

8. Reviewing the literature • Options for establishing a niche: • A: Counter-claiming (something is wrong) • B: Indicating a gap (something is missing) • C: Raising a question or making an inference (something is unclear) • D: Continuing a tradition (adding something) • Look at a journal you brought and find an how the author(s) established their niche. • Now look at your own. Was it the niche you intended? Stronger Weaker (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 348) P348-349 HO

9. Reviewing the literature • How to focus/synthesize/organize the previous finding? (pdf, p27-34 for example) • By possible relationships between the chosen constructs (e.g., a correlation between communication and satisfaction and job satisfaction) • By possible mediating (intervening) and/or moderating variables that influence the relationships between chosen constructs • By possible differences between groups in chosen constructs • By possible gaps, inconsistencies, controversies and/or unanswered questions which form the basis for a new study • By possible untested hypotheses or propositions in the chosen constructs (Kotze, 2007, p 26)

10. Reviewing the literature • Practical principles that can accomplish good organization (pdf, p34-40 for examples): • Use a “funnel approach” by starting with the broader context and then focus in on the specific topic and issue • Carefully plan headings and subheadings that can ensure a logical flow of information (mind-maps can help in planning) • Headings should be descriptive and informative (more than one word) • Make sure that information under heading is in fact well related (Kotze, 2007, p 26)

11. Reviewing the literature • Practical principles that can accomplish clear style (pdf, p42-43 for examples): • Write to the level of an intelligent layperson (i.e., non-academic, no expertise in the discipline of the field), such as a 100 level class in your field. • Always define unfamiliar constructs or technical terms when they are introduced the first time. • Write as though your reader is skeptical about what you write, and you need to argue your case with clear evidence and reasons for your choices. (Kotze, 2007, p 41)

12. Break time! • Evaluative Language, when we return

13. Evaluative language • Negative openings for indicating a gap: • “little” + noun • However, little information… • Little attention… • Little work… • “few” + noun • However, few studies… • Few investigations… • Few attempts… • No/none • No studies/data/calculations to date have… • None of these studies/findings/calculations have… (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 350) P350-51 HO

14. Evaluative language • Contrastive statement openings for indicating a gap: • Research has tended to focus on …, rather than on… • These studies have emphasized …, as opposed to… • Although considerable research has been devoted to…, rather less attention has been paid to… (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 352)

15. Evaluative language • Consider the first two paragraphs of an article from the Journal of Materials Chemistry (PDF) • How many critique/evaluative expressions can you find? (write the expressions on your own paper) • Are they strongly negative or slightly negative? • Can you find the language that signaled Move 1 (Establish a Research Territory)? • Can you find the language that signaled Move 2 (Establish a niche)? (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 354)

16. Evaluative language • Consider the introduction in a journal you brought: • How many critique/evaluative expressions can you find? (write the expressions on your own paper) • Are they strongly negative or slightly negative? • Can you find the language that signaled Move 1 (Establish a Research Territory)? • Can you find the language that signaled Move 2 (Establish a niche)? • Now consider these same questions for your own introduction. (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 354)

17. Class examples of evaluative expression • …remains elusive despite… • There are however very few analyses…. • Yet, the literature has little empirical evidence… • …is far from sufficient… • Very little research has been done to answer the crucial question… • Has not been fully answered….

18. Evaluative language • Evaluative language can be used in claims about your own writing and about others’ writing. • Phrases can weaken and strengthen • Distance can weaken and strengthen • Verbs can weaken and strengthen (appear, seem, tend) • Do you prefer to look at models (journals you brought) or your own writing? • Look for this language in the intro (establishing a niche), in data commentary (remarking about your data), discussion (making final claims) P160-161 HO (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 160)

19. Class examples of strengthening & weakening • …can be reasonably confident… • …may be… • …it would be useful to confirm… • It is some concern that…

20. Applied Linguistics Reviewer (PDF) • Grammar & wording • Literature review • Goes too quickly to the study issue without situating it in the related research • Insufficient review of the literature, causing the reviewer to note oversights & misunderstandings • Personal definitions rather than giving attribution • Analysis & design • Claims about results were problematic for the research design • Sample size too small for the complexity and claims • Causes and effects in the design not well addressed

21. Homework • Continue to apply what you’ve learned in your editing. • Consider staying on contact with your peer from class or connect with someone else, both for encouragement and support. • Feel free to see the powerpoints from this workshop at http://www.u.arizona.edu/~karaj/gpsc.html