Welcome to Applied Victimology

1. Welcome to Applied Victimology Theories of Victimology: 2 h.clarke@derby.ac.uk

2. This week • A feminist critique of positivism • Feminist theories of victimology • Government and non-governmental support of women in crisis • Next week: masculinity studies

3. Positivist Theories of Victimology • Mendelson & Von Hentig explored the relationship between the victim and the offender • Wolfgang explored victim precipitation • Amir (1971) developed these ideas in his study on rape

4. Estimated Extent of Sexual Violence • Around 1 in 10 women (9.7%) said they had experienced some form of sexual victimisation (including rape) since age 16 • Around 1 in 20 women (4.9%) said they had been raped on at least one occasion since age 16 • The BCS estimates that approximately three-quarters of a million women (754,000) have been raped on at least one occasion since age 16

5. Some Risk Factors for Sexual Victimisation • Young women aged 16 to 24 were more likely to say they had been sexually victimised in the last year than older women • Single women, students, and women living in privately rented households also experienced higher than average risks of sexual victimisation • ‘Strangers’ were only responsible for 8 % of rapes reported to the survey

6. Problems with Taking a Positivist Approach to Sexual Violence: • Only a small % of these offences are reported to the police • BCS: getting people to talk to interviewers can be difficult • Problems with defining sexual violence • Less than two-thirds (60%) of female rape victims were prepared to self-classify their experience as ‘rape’

7. Feminist Critique of Positivist Victimology • Positivist victimology reflects the view that there is a normal person (the white, heterosexual male), when measured against whom the victim (women, children, the elderly, the mentally subnormal etc) somehow falls short

8. Feminist Critique of Positivist Victimology • Victim precipitation presumes a level of equality where none may exist • It does not consider the role of power relations • It directs attention to the victim’s behaviour & presumes a level of appropriate behaviour which the victim failed to adhere to

9. The Growth of Second-Wave Feminism • In the 1980s, the victim became ‘politicised’ • Feminism began to develop academic strength • However, Smart (1990) argues that the stain of positivism still infects criminology • Do we have a gendered (or sexist) victimology?

10. Black Feminists >Patricia Bell Scott >bell hooks Social >Mary Wollstonecraft >Betty Friedan >Naomi Wolf > Andrea Dworkin > Catherine Mackinnon > Susan Brownmiller Caroline Ramazanoglu

11. Second Wave Feminism violence against women & children Campaigns for equality Third Wave Feminism non essentialist Intersectionality Fourth Wave Feminism Internet campaigning Using technology

12. Third Wave Feminism • A response to perceived failures of second-wave feminism • An attempt to avoid essentialist definitions of femininity • Often focuses on micro-politics • Intersectionality

13. Intersectionality • Women occupy and negotiate multiple subject positions • Many feminists have challenged the use of ‘women’ and ‘gender’ as unitary and homogeneous categories • Differences within the social category of ‘woman’, for example ethnicity, sexuality, class, and disability, intersect in fluid and complex ways

14. Intersectionality • Identities are both ‘done to’ and ‘unmade’ through these intersections and, at the same, emerge within contested grounds to form an understanding of one’s self (Valentine 2007) • Specific forms of intersectionality can create unique situations of disadvantage and marginalisation (Shields 2008)

15. bell hooks (1981) • The oppression of black women by both white and black men and white women • Struggles to end racism and sexism are inextricably linked • The women’s rights movement has not succeeded in uniting black and white women • Obtaining ‘women’s’ rights in some areas has only succeeded in the further oppression of black women

16. Welsh et al. (2006) • Violence is embedded in interlocking systems of ethnicity, gender and citizenship • When women experience violence, their ethnicity and citizenship are never absent from the event • These intersections influence and complicate components of women's understanding, reactions and labelling

17. Some Contemporary Responses to Feminism • Faludi (1993) a backlash against feminism • I am not a feminist but… • Internet trolls, rape threats and threats of violence

18. Women Against Feminism • Women should learn to deal with unwanted situations with strength, courage and confidence! • “I am not a victim” • Roiphe (1993) and Herbert (1997)

19. Group Work • What does ‘gendered’ victimology mean? • How does a ‘gendered’ victimology affect how we view victims of crime? (Please provide examples) • Do we still have a ‘gendered’ victimology? Please back up your answer with examples?

20. Break After the break Rape & feminist and non-governmental organisations in victim & witness care

21. Understanding Rape • Allegations of rape are often contested • The distinction between criminal & legal sex are often cloudy • ‘Consent’ is often judged by the behaviour of the victim rather than the behaviour of the man • Vulnerable victims may actually fare worse in court

22. Understanding Rape • There is a ‘justice gap’ for women who have been raped • Attitudes and beliefs are critical in decision making factors • Rape myths are prevalent in society and influence all actors – including police officers, prosecutors and juries

23. Rape Myths • Do you believe her? • Was it ‘real’ rape? • Which sexual scripts are operating? • A notional standard against which scenarios (and their deviations) are judged

24. The Vicious Circle

25. Rape Myth Acceptance (RMA) • A mechanism which preserves the culturally embedded notion of ‘real’ sex • RMs serve to deny, downplay or justify sexual violence • These: • Express disbelief in the claim of rape • Exonerates the perpetrators • Lowers the likelihood of reporting the rape

26. Supporting Victims of Rape • What support is available? • (Please note: don’t write at length about the support available to victims. Only write about this support if you are going to critically analysis it with your victimology theory!)

27. Rape Crisis • Coordinates & supports rape crisis centres in England and Wales • Is independent from the government & the CJS • Campaigns to raise awareness of SV • Front line advice & support to women & girls who have experienced some form of SV

28. Rape Crisis Funding (06 – 07) • 32% councils & partnerships • 26% from the Home Office • 23% from charitable grants • 19% other sources

29. Rape Crisis in Crisis • In 1984 there were 68 Rape Crisis Centres • Today there are just 38 centres • 15 centres have had funding challenged because of their women only status - despite the Department of Health acknowledging the need for women only centres

30. Sexual Assault Referral Centres (SARC) • To ensure high quality CJS responses to victims of SV • Primary intervention, forensic examinations, immediate medical care, short-term counselling • The majority are not independent centres

31. Other Models of Non-Governmental Victim Care • Victim Support is the most notable provider of victim and witness care • Yet how independent are they???

32. What is Victim Support? • Registered charity • Core funding comes from the Home Office • First scheme set up in 1974; rolled out in 1978 • Witness service launched in 1994 • Support line launched in 1998

33. Help for Victims • A network of branches • Someone to talk to & advice on police and court procedures • You can self-refer or be put in touch with them by the police • You can contact them whether or not the crime has been reported

34. Help for Witnesses • Someone to talk to in confidence • To learn about court procedures • A quiet place to wait • Company when giving evidence • Practical help (e.g. with expense forms) • Help provide access to legal advice • Support when the case has ended

35. Promoting Victims’ Rights • Work with the government & related agencies on victim issues • Provide evidence to official enquiries • Respond to consultation documents and draft legislation • Conduct research and write reports • Work with the media

36. How Independent is Victim Support? • Victims of crime are referred to Victim Support • Victim Support raises approx £10m from sources other than central government • Since 1997, government funding of Victim Support (inc. the Witness Service) has nearly trebled from £12 million to £30

37. Summary • Feminist victimology criticised positivism for not considering the role of power relations between the victim and the offender • Feminist victimology seeks to offer both an academic understanding AND campaign for women’s rights

38. Break After the break: Applying feminism to your assessment

39. Feminism: How would feminist theories explain this poster? What would feminism say about victimhood? How would different feminist theories approach victimhood? Positivism: How would positivist theories explain this poster? What would positivism say about victimhood?

40. Remember • To critique positivism with feminism (or masculinity studies) • Be specific: which feminism…! • You can approach your assessment by focusing on one particular crime

41. Assessment questions? • Any questions?? • Cycle A seminars start today!

42. References • Kelly, L. (1987). The Continuum of Sexual Violence. In Hamner, J. & Maynard, M. (Eds.). Women, Violence and Social Control pp 46 – 59. London: Macmillan Press Ltd. • Faludi, S. (1993). Backlash: The Undeclared War Against Women. London: Vintage. • Roiphe, K. (1994). The Morning After: Sex, Fear and Feminism. London: Hamish Hamilton Limited. • Ramazanoglu, C. (1998). Feminism and the Problem of Patriarchy. In Sim, S. (Ed). Post-Marxism: A Reader pp 173 – 183. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. • Stanko, E (2003). The Meanings of Violence. London: Routledge. • Kelly, L. & Radford, J. (1996). ‘Nothing Really Happened’: The Invalidation of Women’s Experiences of Sexual Violence. In Hester, M.; Kelly, L. & Radford, J. (Eds.). Women, Violence and Male Power pp 19 – 33. Buckingham: Open University Press. • Maynard, M. (Eds.). Women, Violence and Social Control pp 122 - 134. London: Macmillan Press Ltd. • Smart, C. (1989). Feminism and the Power of Law. London: Routledge.