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The New Frontier

The New Frontier. Politics and Social Change in the 1960s. The New Frontier. Kennedy vs. Nixon. 1960 election Nixon-”Tricky Dick”-”Nixon doesn’t know who he is” (Rep.); Congressman; Eisenhower’s VP 8 yrs ; intelligent, combative

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The New Frontier

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  1. The New Frontier Politics and Social Change in the 1960s

  2. The New Frontier

  3. Kennedy vs. Nixon • 1960 election • Nixon-”Tricky Dick”-”Nixon doesn’t know who he is” (Rep.); Congressman; Eisenhower’s VP 8 yrs; intelligent, combative • Kennedy-(Dem.) Young, bright, the look, wealthy family, suffered from physical ailments, but masked them; inexperienced • Kennedy-slogan-”We stand today on the edge of a New Frontier-the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils-a frontier of unfilled hopes and threats.”

  4. Kennedy vs. Nixon • 3 events shaped the campaign: -Religious ?-Kennedy Catholic -Nixon agreed to debate on tv-1st ever televised debates (style) -civil rights-needed to increase minority voters (MLK arrest for trespassing in an all-white restaurant, R. Kennedy, campaign manager, phoned the judged and MLK was released on bail)

  5. Kennedy vs. Nixon • Closest presidential election since 1888 • Kennedy and LBJ won (303 to 219 electoral; only 118,574 vote diff. in popular) • Nixon actually carried more states

  6. Kennedy/Admin. • Youngest elected; brought best and brightest minds in • Dean Rusk-sec. of state • Robert McNamara-Dept. of Defense • C. Douglas Dillon-Sec. of the Treasury • McGeorge Bundy-asst. for national security affairs“ • Inaugural address: p. 1231, “ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country” • Fresh promise, youthful energy

  7. Kennedy Record • Congress controlled by a conservative southern coalition that blocked many efforts to increase fed. Aid to educ., health ins. For the aged, est. a Dept. of Urban affairs; initiatives to help unemployed youth, migrant workers and mass transit; tax cuts • Victories: -Alliance for Progress programs to help Latin America -Peace Corps (1961) -Trade Expansion Act (1962)-tariff cuts avg. 35% on goods b/w U.S. and Euro. Common Market -Housing Act-$5b to urban renewal/4 years -min. wage up; 3m additional workers -Area Redevelopment Act (1961)-$400m in loans to “distressed” areas -Social Sec. benefits up -$ for sewage-treatment plants -$ for accelerated space program (goal-land on the moon)

  8. Warren Court • Engel v. Vitale (1962)-School prayer adopted by NY State Board of Regents is unconstitutional (1st amend.) • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)-every felony defendant be provided a lawyer regardless of defendant’s ability to pay • Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)-person accused is entitled to a lawyer before interrogation • Miranda v. Arizona (1966)-in custody, must be informed of certain basic rights (Miranda rights)

  9. Expansion of the Civil Rights Movement

  10. Expansion of Civil Rights Movement • Most important domestic issue in the 60s • JFK entered reluctant to challenge race issues-celebrated equality but did little to promote it; changed a little with MLK Jr. • His brother, Robert (atty gen.)-more committed

  11. Civil Rights • Prior: Montgomery Bus Boycott, desegregation of schools • Greensboro, NC, 2/1/60-4 black college students sat down at a white-only Woolworth’s lunch counter-led to sit-in movement • Led to wade-ins, kneel-ins, read-ins, etc. • During the year after, over 3600 black and white activists would spend time in jail

  12. Civil Rights • 1960-SNCC formed (Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee)-student activists • Worked with King’s SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) to broaden the movement • Most activists practiced King’s concept of nonviolent protest-refused to retaliate • May 1961-Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sent freedom riders on buses to test a fed. Ruling that banned segregation on buses, trains and terminals; they were attacked at Anniston, AL-buses burned, attacked/beaten as they exited (John Lewis) • Kennedy, not inspired-wanted to tell them to “call it off”; R. Kennedy had to use fed. Marshals to protect the riders

  13. Civil Rights • 1962-Gov. Barnett of MS. Refused to allow James Meredith, an African-Amer. Student to enroll at Univ. of Miss. • Robert Kennedy dispatched federal marshals who were assaulted; federal troops intervened (2 dead, many injured); finally admitted • In B’ham, AL.-series of demonstrations by Police Comm. Eugene “Bull” Connor-dogs, tear gas, cattle prods, fire hoses (seen on tv) • King’s Letter from a Birmingham Jail-1963-to AL. white clergy (urging him to be moderate)-struggle too long, civil disobedience vs. unjust laws are needed to achieve social justice; need to educate southern whites about the injustice; focus on gaining more federal attention by provoking racists to display their hatred in public • Concept of confrontational civil disobedience outraged J. Edgar Hoover, head of FBI, agents followed King, bugged his phones/rooms, tried to discredit him

  14. Civil Rights • 1964-King awarded the Nobel Peace Prize • JFK finally decided new legislation was needed to deal with race issue, discrim. “has no place in American life or law” • Endorsed bill to end discrim. In public facilities, deseg. Schools, protect voters-blocked in Congress by southern conserv.

  15. Civil Rights • AL. Gov. George Wallace-stood in door of Univ. of AL.-to block enrollment of black students; stepped aside with federal marshals • NAACP official Medgar Evers shot in Jackson, MS. After civil rights speech by Kennedy

  16. Civil Rights • High point-March on D.C.; Aug. 28, 1963 • Over 200,000 • Lincoln Memorial • “We shall overcome” • “I have a dream” speech; MLK Jr. • 2 weeks later-B’ham bombing at church-killed 4 girls

  17. Foreign Frontiers

  18. Early Setbacks • Bay of Pigs Invasion-Cuba; 4/17/61 • No missile gap anymore; in the works, a CIA operation training 1500 anti-Castro Cubans for an invasion of Cuba • Brutally subdued in 2 days • 1100 men captured • JFK-”colossal mistake” • Underestimated Castro’s popularity, poor communication, inaccurate maps, faulty equipment, ineffective leadership • Invaders defenseless-no American air cover

  19. Early Setbacks • JFK met with Khrushchev 2 mos. Later-Khrus. Was volatile, bullied the young, inexperienced JFK • Soviet aggressive stance; JFK responds with calling up army reserve and national guard units • Soviets erect Berlin Wall-Soviet willingness to challenge American resolve in Europe

  20. Cuban Missile Crisis • Cuba feared another American-backed invasion; Soviets could address the strategic imbalance caused by U.S. missiles in Turkey (aimed at Soviets); could demonstrate Soviet toughness • Americans see as a threat to security; Soviets in Cuba might demoralize anti-Castro efforts • 10/14/62-U.S. intelligence discovers Soviet missile sites under construction in Cuba • JFK-naval quarantine (blockade) • Closest encounter with nuclear war • 13 days-talks, Soviet ships just short of the quarantine • Soviet missiles removed from Cuba; obsolete missiles removed from Turkey, Italy and Britain • Sept. 1963-treaty: w/ Soviets and Britain-end nuclear testing in the atmosphere, oceans and outer space

  21. Vietnam • Geneva Accords • Laos-struggle for power b/w Comm. Pathet Lao and Royal Laotian Army; agreed to a neutral coalition • Ho Chi Minh Trail-through e. Laos to supply Vietcong • Diem-failure to deliver promised social and econ. Reforms, vs. Comm. And Buddhist majority • JFK continued to dispatch military advisors in hopes of stabilizing the situation • Ineffective; protests-Buddhist monks/fire • Fall ‘63-Diem a lost cause; dissident generals propose a coup-U.S. not to stand in the way • Nov. 1-seized govt., Diem murdered, but the rebel generals provided no more stability

  22. Kennedy’s Assassination • Had announced intent to withdraw from S. Vietnam by end 1965 • Nov. 22, 1963 • Dallas, Texas • Shot in the back of the head, presence of wife • Lee Harvey Oswald • Motives unknown; fed. Comm. Advise he acted alone-debate • Jack Ruby (nightclub owner)-murders Oswald • Televsion • Arlington National Cemetary

  23. LBJ & the Great Society

  24. LBJ • Conflicting character-not elegant, idealistic, insecure, domineering-felt Kennedy/aides ignored him as VP, compassionate, ruthless; craved political power and public affection; had to be at the center of things-from TX. • Long-standing admiration for FDR-concern for the poor, civil rights • Foreign affairs-like Wilson-a novice • Wanted to be the greatest American president-promised more than he could accomplish in the end

  25. Politics and Poverty • Domestic policy-1st priority • Under LBJ, his forceful leadership broke the legislative blocks Kennedy faced • 9.3m families (20%)-below poverty line-”live on the outskirts of hope”-poverty, color barriers • Tax cuts tried under JFK; skeptical due to increase in budget deficit; Revenue Act 1964-provided boost • Civil Rights Act 1964 (tried in ’63)-prohibited racial segregation in public facilities, outlawed discrim. In regis. Of voters and hiring employees

  26. Politics and Poverty • Legislative program of his own-”war on poverty” • Expose-”The other America” (1962)-”culture of poverty” • Anti-poverty package $ would come from tax revenues generated by corporate profits due to tax reduction in ’64 (1 of the longest sustained econ. Booms)

  27. Politics and Poverty • Job Corps-16-21 age; for inner-city • Head Start-disadvantaged preschoolers • Work study-college students • Grants-farmers, rural bus. • Loans to employers-to hire long-term unemployed • Volunteers in Service to America (domestic peace corps) • Community Action Program-poor directed neigh. programs • “Great Society”-end to poverty and racial injustice

  28. Election of 1964 • Program received a Rep. counterattack • Barry Goldwater-AZ. Senator-leader of Rep. right (conservatism) • Proposed abolition of some programs (income tax), drastic overhaul of others • Extreme-frightened voters (bomb N. Viet.), foolishly candid (ex. Questioning value of SS at retirement comm.) • Johnson-centrist; VP-Hubert Humphrey • Landslide victory (486 to 52)

  29. Landmark Legislation • Unparalleled since FDR’s days • Medicare-program for the aged • Medicaid-disabled, poor • Elementary and secondary educ.-to “poverty-impacted” school districts • Carried 435 bills through Congress

  30. Landmark Legislation • Appalachian Regional Development Act (1966)-$1b to remote mountain areas of poverty • Housing and Urban Development Act (1965)-construction of 240,000 public housing units, $3b for urban renewal • 1966-funds for rent supplements • New Dept. of Housing & Urban Development-led by Robert Weaver, the first African-American cabinet member

  31. Immigration Act • Immigration & Nationality Services Act (1965)-originated under JFK • Abolish the discriminatory quotas based on national origin (since 20s) • Treated all nationalities and races equally • Hemisphere ceilings: 170,000 from E. Hemis., 120,000 from W. Hemis.; no more than 20,000 from 1 country/year • Immediate family members of American residents allowed w/o limit • 1960s-Asians and Latin Americans-largest new group

  32. Assessing the Great Society • Successes: Highway Safety Act, Traffic Safety Act, Higher Educ. Act • Aimed to improve health, nutrition, educ.; clean up environ. • Many were mismanaged, underfunded, ill-conceived • Medicare-costs skyrocketed • Provided welfare programs, but productive jobs? • Bureaucracy • Welfare fraud • Helped to generate a conservative backlash that fueled Rep. resurgence

  33. Civil Rights to Black Power

  34. Civil Rights Legislation • 1965-drive to enroll African American voters • March from Selma to Montgomery-met by state troopers, but Johnson provided troops for protection • Voting Rights Act of 1965-suspended literacy tests, fed. Govt. to oversee registration and elections • Nearly 250,000 newly registered

  35. Black Power • Race riots-LA, Chicago, Cleveland, etc.-people killed, many in jail, property damage; in cities; initiated by blacks • “black power”-1966-Stokely Carmichael (head of SNCC)-made it the objective • H. Rap Brown-succeeded Carmichael-”get you some guns” and kill • Carmichael moved to Black Panther Party-Oakland, CA., 1966; headed by Huey Newton & Eldridge Cleaver (terrified public, spasms of violence)

  36. Black Power • Spokesman for black power-Malcolm X, voice of urban black militancy • Disciple of Elijah Muhammad-black Muslim leader • Extremist • Broke from Muhammad; committed to an est. of alliances between blacks and non-white people • Autobiography, 1964 • Gunned down in Harlem by rival faction of black Muslims (just before had started to abandon anti-white rhetoric)

  37. Black Power • Only about 15% were attracted • MLK-”we can’t win violently” • 2 accomplishments of black power: helped African Americans take greater pride in their racial heritage; forced others to focus attention on the plight of poor inner-city blacks

  38. Vietnam

  39. Vietnam • JFK-over 16,000 military “advisers” • Johnson-doubted Vietnam was worth the military involvement, but didn’t want to appear weak • 1965-184,000; ‘66-385,000; ‘69-542,000 • About 58,000 dead; 300,000 wounded • Cost-about $150b (money away from Great Society programs) • About 570,000 draft offenders; 563,000 less-than-honorable military discharges • Divided the country and toppled admin.

  40. Escalation • Gulf of Tonkin Resolution-following 2 “attacks?” on U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin (off N. Viet.)-authorized the president to “take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the U.S. and to prevent further aggression” • 2/5/65-Pleiku, SV-Vietcong killed 8, wounded 126 Americans; response: Operation Rolling Thunder-1st sustained bombing of NV • “search and destroy” operations throughout SV

  41. Context for Policy • “Americanize” the Vietnam War-consistent with containment theory, domino theory • Johnson-didn’t want to have military involvement reach levels that would involve Soviets or Chinese-just wanted to force a negotiated settlement • Opposition to the war, “living room war”-tv • Senate Foreign Relations Committee-to investigate American policy in Vietnam • Even Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara was wavering • Underestimated the tenacity/will of the NV

  42. Turning Point • Tet (Vietnamese New Year)-1/31/68-Tet Offensive-coordinated attack by the North in to the South-attack cities, embassies • General Westmoreland-proclaimed a major defeat for the Vietcong-casualties enormous • Effect on American society more telling-War was going well? NV not going to give up • LBJ’s popularity down to 35%, civil rights leaders felt betrayed, money toward war-$322,000 for every Communist killed, $53 for each person w/ poverty programs

  43. Turning Point • LBQ-embittered, isolated, depression, paranoia • Vietnam war a stalemate?, Great Society programs fragmented • 1968-relection? All candidates were challenging LBJ’s Vietnam policy (Robert Kennedy, NY senator, announced a run; Sen. Eugene McCarthy) • Predicted a humiliating defeat for LBJ • March 31-speech on tv-announced a limited halt to NV bombing and new initiatives for a cease-fire; also, that he wouldn’t seek a nomination

  44. Sixties Crescendo

  45. Traumatic Year • April 4, 1968-MLK Jr. • Memphis, TN. • James Earl Ray-hostile toward blacks, organized conspiracy? • Ignited riots in over 60 cities • June 5, 1968-Robert Kennedy • In the head by SirhanSirhan-resented Kennedy’s support of Israel (Jordanian) • Had convincingly defeated McCarthy for presidential nomination • JFK, Malcolm X, MLK Jr., Robert Kennedy-marked the decade

  46. Chicago & Miami • Chicago-Aug. ‘68-gathering of Democ. Delegates outside Chicago convention hall to call for nomination of Hubert Humphrey (LBJ’s VP); About 20,000 police/national guard stood watch over protesters; Chicago mayor Richard Daley-warned he would not tolerate disruptions; Riots broke out-tear gas and clubs struck demonstrators (televised) • Disarray of Democ. Led to Rep.-gathered in Miami Beach to nominate Richard Nixon; became the spokesman for “Middle America”-offered vision of stability and order that appealed to a majority of Americans (silent majority) • American Independent Party-AL. Gov. (Democ.) George Wallace –maintained race position; reactionary to riots, welfare; never a possible winner but could throw off electoral vote

  47. Nixon Again • Election of 1968-Nixon started with a large lead, but narrowed as the election approached • statements by others hurt their chances • Narrow popular victory-diff. of approx. 500,000; electoral vote 301 to 191; Wallace received approx. 13.5% of the votes-best showing by 3rd party since La Follette w/ the Progressives • Nixon’s promise-”peace with honor” in Vietnam and a middle ground on which a majority of Americans, silent or otherwise, could come together

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