“We’re way beyond reading together:” Why and how does parental involvement make sense in adolescence?

1. “We’re way beyond reading together:” Why and how does parental involvement make sense in adolescence? Kathy Hoover-Dempsey, Christa Green, Katie Shepard Vanderbilt University

2. In this paper, we first consider . . . • What happens to parental involvement in adolescence? • It generally declines; why does this happen? • If it declines, why bother with it?

3. We next consider . . . 2) How does parental involvement ‘work,’ with what effects, during adolescence? We examine a process focused on understanding: • Parents’ motivations for involvement • The activities they choose • The mechanisms of influence they engage • The role of adolescents’ perceptions in the process • The learning outcomes most influenced by involvement

4. What happens to parental involvement in adolescence? (I) It generally declines; why does this happen?

5. What happens to parental involvement in adolescence? (I) • Developmental changes in the child • Adolescents become more focused on personal autonomy, personal competence, and peers (less time, less day-to-day dependence on family)(Jessor, 1993; Larson et al., 1996) • Parents often respond with increased ‘space’ for development; renegotiations often center on parents’ public roles in student lives & issues of timing and control (Eccles et al., 1993; Falbo et al., 2001; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1995; Kay et al., 1994)

6. What happens to parental involvement in adolescence? (II) • Changes in school structure and expectations • Schools and classes are larger, more structured (Eccles et al., 1993; Roeser et al., 2000) • Teaching is more focused on student responsibility; often fewer choices, lower personal support for students (Barber & Olsen, 2004; Eccles et al., 1993; Newman et al., 2000) • Teachers are less focused on parents (involvement may interfere with student learning & responsibility; constraints on time) (Adams & Christenson, 2000; Spera, 2005)

7. What happens to parental involvement in adolescence? (III) • Changes in parents’ perspectives on personal ability to support student learning • Responses to adolescent press for independence and declines in school expectations for involvement (Balli et al., 1998; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1995) • Complexity of learning content and processes may cause parents to doubt the likely effectiveness of their involvement efforts (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Shumow & Miller, 2001)

8. If involvement declines in adolescence, why bother with it? Because . . . 1) Parental involvement continues to contribute to positive school outcomes: • Student attributes associated with achievement (e.g., self-regulation, academic efficacy, work orientation) • Student behaviors associated with achievement (e.g., attendance, time & effort on homework, attention in class) • Student attitudes associated with achievement (e.g., engagement in school, aspirations for further schooling) (Bandura et al., 1996; Buriel et al., 1996; Catsambis, 2001; Grolnick et al., 2000; Hill et al., 2004; Shumow, 1998; Simon, 2004; Steinberg et al., 1992; Walker & Hoover-Dempsey, 2006; Xu & Corno, 2006)

9. If involvement declines in adolescence, why bother with it? Because . . . 2) Adolescents continue to want and value parental involvement, in such activities as • Having parental help when requested (e.g., help with homework, studying for tests, problems with peers) • Attending sports events & student performances • Discussing school projects, course selection (e.g., Deslandes & Cloutier, 2002; Epstein, 1996; Ramirez, 2002; Xu, 2002)

10. How does parental involvement ‘work’ in adolescence? Our model and related research suggests that involvement influences student learning outcomes through a process that includes: • Parents’ motivations for involvement • Parents’ choice of involvement activities • The mechanisms of influence parents engage during involvement • Adolescents’ perceptions of parents’ involvement • Adolescent learning outcomes influenced by involvement (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995, 1997, 2005; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; Walker et al., 2005; Green et al., under review; see also http://www.vanderbilt.edu/Peabody/family-school)

11. How does parental involvement work in adolescence? Parents’ motivations Our model suggests that parents become involved for 3 major reasons: 1) Personal beliefs suggest they should and can be involved; 2) Invitations from others suggest that student and teachers want their involvement; 3) Life context variables allow or support involvement

12. How does parental involvement work in adolescence? Parents’ motivations: 1) Personal beliefs • Role construction: parents’ beliefs that they should be involved • e.g., a parent with active role beliefs is likely to become engaged in the adolescent’s education; a parent who holds relatively passive role beliefs is likely to wait on others’ requests for involvement (Chrispeels & Rivero, 2001; Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005; Garcia Coll et al., 2002; Green et al., under review; Grolnick et al., 1997; Gutman & McLoyd, 2000; Sheldon, 2002) • Sense of efficacy: parents’ beliefs that their involvement will make a difference • e.g., a parent with strong sense of efficacy is likely to become involved and persist when difficulties emerge; a parent with weaker sense of efficacy is less likely to become involved and more likely to give up when difficulties emerge (Bandura et al., 1996; Green et al., 2006; Grolnick et al., 1997; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1992; Shumow & Lomax, 2002)

13. How does parental involvement work in adolescence? Parents’ motivations: 2) Invitations • Invitations from the school: school valuing, respecting, welcoming parents • e.g., a parent who feels respected and welcomed in the school is likely to return; a parent who feels ignored or devalued is likely to avoid the school or return with defensiveness (Christenson, 2004; Comer & Haynes, 1991; Griffith, 1998; Lopez et al., 2000; Simon, 2004) • Invitations from teachers: specific requests and suggestions for helping • e.g., a parent who receives specific requests from teachers is likely to become involved; a parent who receives only general or no requests is less likely to become involved (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001; Green et al., 2006; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; Kohl et al., 2002; Patrikakou & Weissberg, 2000; Shumow, 1998) • Invitations from student: implicit and explicit • e.g., a parent whose adolescent asks for help (implicitly or explicitly) is more likely than one who is not asked to become involved (Balli et al., 1998;Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005; Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001; Gonzalez et al., 2001; Green et al., 2006; Pomerantz & Eaton, 2001; Xu & Corno, 2003)

14. How does parental involvement work in adolescence? Parents’ motivations: 3) Life context variables • Knowledge & skills: parents are likely to avoid activities for which their skills are insufficient, choose those that match perceptions of personal skills • e.g., decrease homework help, increase discussions about importance of enrolling in courses leading to college (Garcia Coll et al., 2002; Grolnick et al., 2000; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1995; Kay et al., 1994) • Time & energy: parents are likely to choose activities that fit within their own family responsibilities and routines • e.g., forego most school-based involvement, focus on home-based possibilities (Clark, 1983; Garcia Coll et al., 2002; Gutman & McLoyd, 2000; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1995; Weiss et al., 2003) • Family culture: families are likely to choose activities consistent with understanding of family values, goals and roles in education (Chrispeels & Rivero, 2001; Collingnon et al., 2001; Lopez, 2001; Lopez et al., 2001; Trevino, 2004)

15. What do parents do when they’re involved in adolescents’ education?* • School-based activities (parent-teacher conferences, sports events, performances, parent workshops) (Bogenschneider, 1997; Catsambis, 2001; Crosnoe, 2001; Falbo et al., 2001; Fan & Chen, 2001; Garcia Coll et al., 2002; Gonzalez et al., 2002; Grolnick et al., 2000; Gutman & McLoyd, 2000; Hill et al., 2004; Ibanez et al., 2004; Jeynes, 2003; Lee & Bowen, 2006; Lopez et al., 2000; Simon, 2004) • Home-based activities (support for homework, general monitoring, discussions about projects/assignments) (Balli et al., 1998; Catsambis, 2001; Cooper et al., 2000; Crosnoe, 2001; Falbo et al., 2001; Fan & Chen, 2001; Gonzalez et al., 2002; Grolnick et al., 2000; Gutman & McLoyd, 2000; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001; Jeynes, 2003; Shumow & Miller, 2001; Simon, 2004) • Other forms • Parent-school communications • Parent-student discussions • Parental expectations & aspirations • Parental support through culturally valued means (e.g., use of community resources, engagement in faith-based support for student learning) (Catsambis, 2001; Chrispeels & Rivero, 2001; Crosnoe, 2001; Fan & Chen, 2001; Hill et al., 2004; Jeynes, 2003; Ma, 1999; Okagaki & Frensch, 1998; Paulson, 1994; Simon, 2004 Trusty et al., 2003)

16. What do parents do when they’re involved in adolescents’ education?* * We believe it’s important to understand the activities parents choose when they’re involved, especially so that families, schools and communities may understand well the full range of parental involvement that may be accessed to support students’ educational success. * Understanding parents’ influence on student outcomes, however, requires a focus on the mechanisms of influence that parents engage during their varied involvement activities.

17. What mechanisms of influence do parents engage whey they’re involved in adolescents’ education? (l) • Encouragement: parents’ explicit, often affectively charged, support for student engagement in activities related to school tasks and learning • associated with school engagement, successful transition to middle school, psychosocial well-being (Barber et al., 2005; Catsambis, 2001; Deslandes & Cloutier, 2002; Grolnick et al.,2001; Martinez-Pons, 1996; Paulson, 1994; Steinberg et al.,1992) • Modeling: parents’ serving as a model of interests, attitudes and behaviors associated with successful learning (e.g., motivation to learn, use of goal-setting, strategy adjustment) • associated with academic orientation, self-regulation, improved achievement (Bandura, 1997; Clark, 1983; Crosnoe, 2001; Gutman & McLoyd, 2000; Xu, 2004 Zimmerman & Kitsankas, 2002)

18. What mechanisms of influence do parents engage whey they’re involved in adolescents’ education? (ll) • Reinforcement: parents’ application of positive, individually and developmentally appropriate consequences for learning behaviors) • Associated with development of more complex learning, successful performance of school tasks, achievement (Callahan, et al., Ginsberg & Bronstein, 1993; Gutman & McLoyd, 2000; Sanders, 1998 Skinner, 1989; Bandura, 1997) • Instruction: parents’ engagement with student in indirect (e.g., showing interest, responding, scaffolding) and direct (e.g., tutoring, practicing, correcting) forms of instruction • In varied forms as developmentally appropriate, associated with successful task performance, achievement (Bryan & Nelson, 1994; Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001; Goncu & Rogoff, 1998; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1995; Muller, 1995; Okagaki & Frensch, 1998 Shumow, 1998; Sigel, 1990)

19. How do adolescent perceptions of involvement influence outcomes? It is important to attend to adolescents’ perceptions of parental involvement because: • Student perceptions of events mediate the influence of events on student learning (Dornbusch et al., 1987; Grolnick et al., 1991) • Parents’ behaviors (attitudes, values, etc.) related to learning must be perceived and experienced by students if they are to influence student learning (Bandura, 1997; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994) • The meaning of parents’ involvement behaviors is subject to varied understandings, e.g., parent understanding, student understanding (Bandura, 1997; Xu & Corno,1998) • Student perceptions of parental behavior are often better predictors of student outcomes than parent reports (Ibanez et al., 2004; Paulson, 1994; Reynolds, et al., 1996; Steinberg et al., 1992).

20. What are important outcomes of parental involvement in adolescence?Distal or summary outcomes ‘Distal’ outcomes are generally assumed to reflect the primary goals of education: student achievement and educational success. They often include: • Student grades(Crosnoe, 2001; Fan & Chen, 2001; Hill et al., 2004; Lee & Bowen, 2006) • Standardized achievement test scores(Crosnoe, 2001; Hill et al., 2004; Jeynes, 2003; Simon, 2004) • Longer term behavioral indicators, e.g., rates of retention in grade, drop-out rates, rates of involvement in the juvenile justice system, post-secondary educational attainment(Barnard, 2004; Fan & Chen, 2001; Reynolds et al., 2004)

21. What are important outcomes of parental involvement in adolescence?Proximal outcomes (l) Our model suggests that these attributes—as used by students in the course of learning—are among the student outcomes most subject to parental influence: • Self-regulatory strategy knowledge and use: a set of cognitions, metacognitions and behaviors used during successful learning (e.g., goal-setting, self-monitoring, strategy evaluation and adjustment) (Brody et al., 1999; Grolnick et al., 2000; Hill et al., 2004; Xu & Corno, 2006; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990)

22. What are important outcomes of parental involvement in adolescence?Proximal outcomes (ll) • Academic self-efficacy: beliefs about one’s ability to complete school work successfully (‘I can use my skills effectively in school tasks and learning’) (Bandura et al., 1996; ; Buriel et al., 1998; Grolnick et al., 2000; Gutman & Midgely, 2000) • Intrinsic motivation: interest in learning for its own sake rather than for external rewards (Baumrind, 1989; Hokoda & Fincham, 1995; Roeser et al., 2000 Steinberg et al., 1992) • Social self-efficacy for relating to teachers: beliefs that help-seeking and engaging with teachers will yield positive learning outcomes (Buriel et al., 1998; Patrick et al., 1997; Roeser et al., 1996; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990)

23. What are important outcomes of parental involvement in adolescence?Proximal outcomes (lll) Other investigators have suggested other proximal outcomes in student learning, for example: • Student behaviors, e.g., time/effort on homework, attentiveness in class, enrollment in higher level courses (Balli et al., 1998; Barber & Olsen, 2004; Catsambis, 2001; Ginsberg & Bronstein, 1993; Hill et al., 2004; Ma, 1999) • Student attitudes about school and education, e.g., orientation to school, engagement (Catsambis, 2001; Hill et al., 2004; Roeser et al., 2000; Shumow & Miller, 2001; Steinberg et al., 1992) • Other attributes associated with school success, e.g., work orientation, control understanding, mental health (Barber & Olsen, 2004; Grolnick et al., 2000; Steinberg et al., 1989)

24. A sample of findings and recommendations (I) • Parental involvement during adolescence is an important contributor to student learning and school success. Recommendation: Educational improvement efforts at the school, community, and national levels should plan to recognize, engage, and support family contributions to student school success

25. A sample of findings and recommendations (II) • Parents choose to become involved in their adolescents’ schooling because: • they have an active role construction for involvement and positive sense of efficacy for helping the adolescent learn; • they receive invitations to involvement (from school, teacher, student); • they have access to involvement opportunities that are consistent with their skills & knowledge, time & energy, and family culture. Recommendation: Communities, schools and teachers wishing to enhance the incidence & effectiveness of parental involvement must be engaged in: supporting parents’ active role construction and sense of efficacy; offering active invitations to involvement; working with families to create involvement opportunities that fit and respect families’ life context.

26. A sample of findings and recommendations (III) • Parental involvement functions through activation of specific teaching/learning mechanisms to influence adolescents’ school outcomes, including: • Encouragement of appropriate/productive school behaviors and work habits • Modeling of school-appropriate attitudes and behaviors • Reinforcement of student learning and related behaviors • Instruction as appropriate to supporting student performance in school tasks. Recommendation: Parental involvement efforts and effectiveness are likely to be enhanced to the extent that schools and teachers offer and support specific suggestions for involvement focused on mechanisms or parental behaviors that influence students’ learning-related attitudes, habits, and behaviors.

27. A sample of findings and recommendations (IV) • The most important direct outcomes of parental involvement in adolescents’ school learning are likely to be ‘proximal’ attributes: student attitudes, beliefs, and patterns of behavior that are both subject to parental influence and linked to student achievement. Recommendation: Parental involvement efforts and effectiveness are likely to be enhanced to the extent that schools, teachers, and communities offer information about and support for parents’ focus on proximal outcomes as they are involved in their adolescents’ school learning.

28. Thank you!