Module 4: Ethics and the Professions

1. Module 4: Ethics and the Professions • Introduction • Evolution of Professions • The Making an Ethical Professional: Education and Licensing • Professional Decision Making and Ethics • Professionalism and Ethical Responsibilities Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

2. Evolution of Professions • Professions have a long history: • They started in medieval period (England) with craftsmen’s guilds and Inns. • Guilds upheld: • Apprenticeship and standards • Competence • Performance • Later intellectualism became a highly important requirement Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

3. Evolution of Professions … • Professionalism today requires: • A set of highly developed skills and a deep knowledge domain • Autonomy • Observance of a code of conduct – there are four intertwined sets of codes a professional must abide by. • These are: Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

4. Evolution of Professions … • (i) Professional code • (ii) Personal code • (iii) Institutional code • (iv) Community/(civil) code • See figure 4.1 Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

5. Evolution of Professions … • Professionals must have: • Commitment (see page 70) • The person making the commitment must do so willingly without duress. • The person responsible must try to meet the commitment, even if help is needed. • There must be agreements on what is to be done, by whom, and when. • The commitment must be openly and publicly stated. • The commitment must not be made easily. • Prior to the committed date, if it is clear it cannot be met, advance notice must be given and a new commitment negotiated. • Integrity with three maxims of: • Vision • Love • Commitment • Responsibility (see pages 72/73) • Provider • Service responsibility • Product responsibility • Consequential responsibility Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

6. Responsibility (cont.) • Accountability • A set of outcome measures that reliably and objectively evaluate performances – minimum set of measures that must be met. • A set of performance standards defined in terms of these outcome measures – common standards. • A set of incentives for meeting the standards and/or penalties for failing to meet them. Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

7. Making an Ethical Professional • Formal Education • Licensing • Professional codes of Conduct must include: • Enforcement • Reporting of grievances • Hearing procedures • Sanctions • Appeals Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

8. Professional Decision Making and Ethics • Professional dilemmas in decision-making are caused by: • Conflicting codes of conduct • Advances in technology • Incomplete/ misleading information (prisoner’s dilemma) • Guilt in decision-making may lead to: • Withdrawal • Making and Evaluating Ethical Arguments Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

9. The process of ethical reasoning must avail the decision maker with a safe or valid alternative from a multitude of alternatives presented by the ethical problems -a way out of the ethical muddles presented by the ethical problem. • As the process of reasoning progresses, the following information will start to emerge: • Information to confirm whether the problem is really an ethical problem or not. • Information on whether further description of the facts can add anything to the resolution process of the problem • Information to identify the key ethical theories, principles, and values that fit the safe alternatives being pursued • information on the strength and validity of the ethical theory chosen and whether there are possible conflicts in the ethical theories, principles and values with the reasoning processes and facts. • Once a final decision have been made, an evaluation of that decision is needed. • The goal of evaluating an ethical argument is to make sure that each of the alternatives being considered is “weighted” against all others using the facts at hand. Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

10. Guilt and Making Ethical Decisions • In an ethical decision making process, decisions are made based on and reflect consequences, individual liberties, and justice. • To achieve this, individuals can use any other ethical theories to frame or make ethical choices that reflect the selected criteria. • However, whatever theory used, the outcome falls in one of the following three criteria: • Utilitarian criterion – where decisions are made solely on the basis of their intended outcomes or consequences. • Rights criterion – where decisions are made based on the set of liberties the society enforces like the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights. • Justice criterion – which reflect justice. Decisions are made so that they are fair, impartial, and equitable to all. Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

11. Decisions .. • Decisions are based on the outcome of an individual’s deliberations, considering all input parameters and attaching values to these premises for a thorough examination of each premise by the individual • This process is aided by the individual reflecting on these basic steps: • Examining the ethically relevant issues, principles, standards, and practices. • Determining the different parties (and their special interests) who will be affected by your decision. • Deciding on an alternative course of action if and when the outcome of the decision is not what is expected. • Considering the probable consequences (short and long term) of each alternative on each of the different parties involved. • Thinking of consulting with a trusted colleague if the situation is complex, risky, or there is undue personal involvement. • Determining how personal values, biases, beliefs, or self-interests influenced the decision (either positively or negatively) and whether the consequences of the decision have been evaluated. • Being prepared to (1) assume responsibility for the consequences of the action, including correction of negative consequences, if any, (2) re-engage in the decision-making process if the ethical issue is not resolved, and (3) evaluate the system(s) within which the issue arose, in order to identify and remove the circumstances that might facilitate and reward unethical practices. Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

12. Professionalism and Ethical Responsibilities • Whistle-blowing gives the impression of an act of seeking public attention- The purpose of whistle-blowing in the workplace and the goal of a whistle-blower is the same as that in the sports arenaa call for public attention. • It includes: • Computer-Aided methods • Traditional methods which ensure anonymity Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

13. Whistle-blowing has been praised by many as courageous actions taken by a few good people with a moral conscience who risk everything to call public attention to illegitimate business practices and illegal and immoral actions • Problems inherent in whistle blowing include: • Fear of reprisal • Suspicion surrounding whistle blowing • Ethical and moral implications • Membership in organizational channels • Read the False Claims Act (appendix B) – Also see Federal Safety guidelines – page 91/92 Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

14. Harassment and Discrimination • Harassment is to verbally or physically create an environment that is hostile, intimidating, offensive, severe, pervasive, or abusive based on a number of parameters including one’s race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, national origin, age, disability, political affiliation, marital status, citizenship, or physical appearance. • Discrimination on the other hand is a process of making decisions that negatively affect an individual, like denial of a service, based wholly, or partly, upon the real or perceived facts of one’s race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, national origin, age, disability, political affiliation, marital status, or physical appearance. Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

15. The following steps are needed in fight against harassment and discrimination. • (i) Awareness - There are no clear signs of harassment but in most cases, harassment is manifested into the following signs: unhappiness, anxiety, discomfort, stress, and lifestyle changes. • (ii) Prevention- The main tool for prevention of harassment and discrimination is for an organization to have an enforceable clearly and simply write policy framework setting out the procedures that must be taken if harassment and discrimination occurs. • The procedures must include: awareness/education, complaint process, sanctions, and redress. Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza