The Stormy ’60s

1. The Stormy ’60s Chapter 38

2. Kennedy’s “New Frontier” Spirit • JFK is the youngest President elected, World War II hero, Harvard educated, from a wealthy family • Cabinet is young, mostly Harvard educated, called his “brain trust” • Brother Bobby is Attorney General • Wants to be a more active president, calls his vision for America the New Frontier • Kennedy inspires idealism • Peace Corps is an army of idealistic volunteers that bring “first world” skills to Third World countries

3. The New Frontier At Home • JFK had only a narrow Democratic majority in Congress; hard to get proposals through Congress • Kennedy has problem with conservative Southern Democrats • Most of his social legislation is axed by Congress • Kennedy’s disputes with Big Business • They see him as unfriendly • Kennedy does cut taxes though • Announces project to put a man on the Moon. • Costs 24 billion, but was successful in 1969.

4. Rumblings In Europe • June 1961 Kennedy meets with Khrushchev in Vienna • Berlin Dispute • Khrushchev threatens to cut off Western access to Berlin to keep population of Berlin from going to democratic West • 1961 begins construction of Berlin Wall • Becomes symbol of Soviet domination and repression of E. Europe

6. Stubborn French • Kennedy European tariff policy • He cut tariffs up to 50% to promote trade between Europe and the U.S. • French refuse to participate • They fear American domination of Europe • French develop their own nuclear arsenal and want a Europe free of American influence

7. “Flexible Response” • With the end of colonization, the newly independent colonies became a headache as they flared into civil wars. • Congo • Laos • Leads Kennedy to move away from Ike’s “massive retaliation” and to adopt the doctrine of “flexible response” • develop an array of military responses that can be precisely calibrated to the gravity of the crisis. • Kennedy increases military spending and bolstered the special forces.

8. Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire • Corrupt right-wing, pro-US government in South Vietnam. • Communists in the south, Viet-Cong, waging guerrilla civil war. • Late 1961 Kennedy sharply increases US military advisors • Coup against South Vietnamese leader. • U.S. steps into Vietnam to foster political stability • Kennedy increases military and economic aid • Modernization theory- believed that traditional societies could develop into industrial, democratic nations by following the Western nations path

9. Cuban Confrontations • Latin American countries saw the U.S. as a bully • Alliance for Progress • Marshall Plan for Latin America to provide aid for economic development • doesn’t have much effect. • Bay of Pigs Invasion • CIA backed plan to topple communist government in Cuba • April 1961 invasion at Bay of Pigs was a failure • Kennedy assumes full responsibility. • Pushed the Cubans further toward the Soviets

10. Cuban Missile Crisis • Castro pushed into the arms of the Soviets. • October 1962 Khrushchev starts to install nuclear tipped missiles in Cuba • Spy photos reveal the missiles • Plan was to keep pressure on the US to back down on issues in other parts of the world • Kennedy rejects air strike; instead orders a military blockade and demands immediate removal of missiles. • Russian ships and quarantine line • Khrushchev finally blinks when he agreed to a compromise. • Pulls missiles out of Cuba • US agrees to not attack Cuba and to pull missiles out of Europe targeted at Soviet Union • Seems to be a clear US victory

11. Missile Crisis Fallout • Khrushchev forced out of power • Kremlin begins an aggressive program of military expansion; New Arms Race • Democrats gain in the midterm elections. • Kennedy begins to push for arms control and greater communications between Russia and the US. • Hotline • Ban on above-ground nuclear tests agreed to in 1963 • Kennedy urges Americans to live with the Soviets as they are and find a method of peaceful coexistence. • Origins of the policy of Détente.

12. The Struggle For Civil Rights • Kennedy moved very slowly on Civil Rights • Lack of southern Congressional support • Events forced the President’s hand. • Freedom Riders tried to end segregation in facilities serving bus passengers • After violent incidents federal marshals were sent to protect Freedom Riders • Kennedy works with SCLC to promote civil rights and to register black voters

13. Civil Rights Violence • Integrating Southern universities. • Kennedy forced to send in 3000 troops. • Spring 1963 King begins a campaign against discrimination in Birmingham. • Police reaction • Attacked protesters with dogs and fire hoses • All seen on TVs across the country • June 11, 1963 Kennedy responds. • Calls for new Civil Rights legislation • Calls problem a moral issue

14. I Have a Dream • Medger Evers black civil rights worker is killed • August 1963, March on Washington and King’s “I have a Dream” Speech • September 1963 bombing of black Birmingham church kills 4 black girls at Sunday School • Kennedy’s Civil Rights Bill was making little headway and many African Americans were growing impatient

15. THE KILLING OF KENNEDY • November 22, 1963 Kennedy is shot in Dallas • Johnson takes over as president

16. The LBJ Brand On The Presidency • Lyndon Johnson was profane, earthy, vain, idealistic • Master politician; former Senate Majority Leader in the Senate.

17. Johnson’s Great Society • Johnson puts power behind Civil Rights Bill. • Civil Rights Act of 1964. • Prohibits discrimination in facilities open to the public • Strengthened power to end segregation in schools • Created federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission • Prevents both race and gender discrimination. • Southern Senators try to kill with a lengthy filibuster. • Johnson launches a billion dollar war on poverty designed to help those not yet getting the benefits of America’s vast wealth. • Dubbed the Great Society Program. • Medicare/Medicade central pillar • New Deal type economic and welfare measures designed to free Americans from poverty and social injustice

18. Johnson Battles Goldwater In 1964 • Johnson is easily nominated in 1964; runs on a very liberal platform. • Republicans nominate Senator Barry Goldwater • very, very conservative. • Strongly anti-red, strongly anti-New Deal. • Believes in small national government (Jeffersonian) • Wanted American field commanders to have authority to use tactical nukes in the battle field. • Johnson convinces national that Goldwater “scary” • “In your heart you know he’s right” vs. “In your gut you know he’s nuts” • Johnson wins biggest landslide in US history.

19. Tonkin Gulf Resolution • Tonkin Gulf incident • August 1964 Johnson calls attack by North Vietnamese on U.S. Navy ship unprovoked • Orders air raids on North Vietnam • Johnson uses to get Tonkin Gulf Resolution from Congress • Consequences? • Gives the president a virtual blank check to use force in Southeast Asia against the North Vietnamese. • Gives Johnson discretion to widen the war, which he does after the election.

20. The Great Society Congress • Johnson has 2-1 democratic majority in both houses of Congress. • Legislative slate passed by Johnson after the 1964 election was comparable to FDR’s 100-days. • Sweeping package of social reform and new aid to the poor and down-trodden. • Continues the war on poverty • Created the Dept. of Transportation and Housing and Urban Development. • Names the first Black cabinet secretary—Robert Weaver • Creates national Endowment for the Arts

21. Legislative Landmarks • Four legislative achievements at heart of Great Society: • Federal Aid to Education • Medicare for the Elderly/Medicaid for the Poor • Immigration Reform • Voting Rights Act • Medicare and Medicaid provide medical insurance at governmental expense for elderly and poor • Medicare and Medicaid join social security and unemployment insurance as part of social safety net • Despite critics poverty did decline and general health conditions improved for many Americans

22. Voting Rights Act • In 1964 Voting Rights becomes the main goal of civil rights movement. • Passage of 24th Amendment • Freedom Summer of 1964 was a massive voter registration drive in Mississippi • Three civil rights workers were murdered • MLK resumed voter registration drive in AL, “March to Selma” • Voting Rights Act of 1965. • Johnson sends in federal officials to oversee voter registration. • Over the next 25 years totally transforms the south because blacks are voting.

23. Black Power • Voting Rights Act ends era of non-violence for civil rights movement • Civil Right movement moves north and out of the control of MLK, becomes more militant and violent • 1965—Watts riots. • New voices advocate confrontation, violence and separatism. • Malcolm X • Stokely Carmichael • Black Panthers • Riots across the US in 1967, all shown on TV • Many white Americans become outraged • Civil Rights Movement increasingly focuses on economic demands • MLK assassinated in 1968; wisest black voice gone.

24. Vietnam Escalation • 1965 Johnson escalates the war • Operation Rolling Thunder • Starts bombing and the use of troops on the ground. • War becomes Americanized • By end of 1965, 184,000 America troops; 1968 almost 500,000 • Believes American escalation will show US resolve and north will back down. • Believes in domino theory • The fall of one non-communist state would cause neighboring countries to become communist as well • US casualties start to mount, end is nowhere in sight

25. Vietnam Vexations • World opinion was turning against the US • Hawks vs. Doves • Appeared that US was beating up a third-world nation over US zeal to spank communism. • Made it harder for US to respond elsewhere • Six Day War (Israel and Egypt) • Led to a lot of domestic discontent. • Many blamed Johnson. • Major protests in San Francisco, New York and on college campuses. • Anti-war demonstrations gradually mounted on campuses. • Draft resisters flee to Canada, burn draft cards, burn flags

26. Quagmire • By late 1960s opposition to the war was hardening. • 1966-1967 Fulbright hearings. • Public feels increasingly misled about the war and ability to win. • By 1968 had become the longest and most unpopular foreign war in US history. • Government had failed to adequately explain why we were fighting there and/or what was at stake. • Johnson, orders the CIA to spy on American anti-war activists. • FBI turns against peace groups • Johnson stubbornly continues to assert that victory is just around the corner.

27. Vietnam Topples Johnson • Jan. 1968 Tet offensive • Political and psychological victory for the Viet Cong • Military demands 200,000 more troops. • Johnson challenged from within his party by Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy. • March 1968 Johnson’s announcement he would not run for the presidency

28. 1968 Election Chaos • Hubert Humphrey front-runner for the democratic nomination. • Strong challenge from Robert Kennedy. • June 1968 Kennedy assassinated after primary victory in California

29. Convention Chaos • 1968 Democratic convention in Chicago in chaos. • Democrats were bitter, divided and angry over the death of Kennedy, the war, etc. • Many young, radical, anti war protester showed up to vent their frustration • The Chicago police and demonstrators clashed outside of the convention • Democrats came off looking like a disorganized, fratricidal mob. • Humphrey wins the nomination on the first ballot.

30. Richard Nixon and George Wallace • Republicans nominate Richard Nixon who is running as a conservative-moderate. • Platform • Tough on crime, , “hawk” on Vietnam • Supported by white, conservative southern Democrats • George Wallace • American Independent Party. • Wallace ardently anti-integration • “Segregation Now, Segregation tomorrow, Segregation forever.”

31. Victory For Nixon • Nixon and Humphrey have similar policies on VN. No real choice between the two. • As a result, many doves sat out the election because no standard-bearer for their views. • Nixon wins by half a percentage point without carrying a single major city and with no coat-tails. • Both houses of Congress remain Democratic. Democrats win 95% of the black vote. • Nixon wins only 43% of the vote because Wallace had siphoned off votes from both. No mandate. • Wallace wins 46 electoral votes from the deep south. Largest third-party electoral vote in American history.

32. Cultural Upheaval • 1960s become a dividing line of two different era of morals, values and behavior • Vietnam, Civil Rights Struggle and materialism undermine faith of youth in government and “establishment” • Roots in the 1950s among the “beats” who voiced disillusionment with material pursuits • Division also appeared between more educated and less educated Americans • Idea of shared purpose seemed to be losing its grip

33. Cultural Upheaval • Organized students movements against established authority • 1964 Free Speech movement in Berkley • 1968 Students for Democratic Society were anti-war and anti poverty; eventually became a domestic terrorist group the Weather Underground • Many young people became political and cultural rebels • Many protests fueled by outrage over Vietnam • Became opposed to traditional American values, developed their own counterculture • Sexual Revolution (development of birth control?) , gay rights also became issues at this time