Argument: Reading, Writing, and Research

Argument: Reading, Writing, and Research ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Topics of Discussion • Emotional Appeal • Logical Argument • Balanced, Credible Argument • Informal Analysis of Arguments • Writing an Argumentative Research Essay ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Arguments • You don’t have to be hostile, arrogant, an expert or sound overly confident to be effective at argument. • You are expected to be reasonable, fair-minded, and logical. • The goal is the honest search for truth in a world where there are often competing truths. You always want to make your case convincing enough to have an impact on your audience but you “win” in argumentative writing when you are fair, thorough, and clear. • The challenge of writing an argument is to place ideas in a public forum to see if they stand up under scrutiny. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Emotional Appeal • A good example of emotional appeal are advertisements. • They succeed because their creators know that they will be viewed casually on billboards and in magazines and rarely analyzed in college classes. • By studying advertising methods, we become aware of how ads and other forms of emotional appeal motivate people to do and believe what their creators want them to. • Many ads emphasize the emotional appeal of a product while providing little if any information about ingredients, specifications, or the like. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Logical Argument • In contrast to emotional appeal, most serious argument relies on factual data and logic. • To say that an argument is based on logical reasoning is not to say that the argument is necessarily “right.” Two opponents can argue opposite sides of a complex issue, each using logical reasoning in support of his or her position. • A reader would have to weigh the arguments of both sides in deciding which, on balance, has made the more persuasive case. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Balanced, Credible Argument • Most serious argumentative writing uses some of both: appeal to emotion and reasoned argument. • It relies on sound reasoning (sometimes called logos), but it also recognizes that our minds are more than calculating machines, that they respond to emotional appeals (pathos) as well. • Effective arguments rely on appeals of both kinds. • There is a third element of argumentation, however – ethos or persona. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Persona or Ethos • Writers use ethical appeals to persuade the reader by projecting an image of credibility and trustworthiness. This credibility must be earned. • It is very difficult to convince someone whom you have alienated through shoddy research, arrogance, and bad writing. • As Aristotle pointed out long ago, the persona or personality that the writer projects matters at least as much as the substance and validity of the argument. • You can inspire trust only by being a careful thinker and writer. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

The Reality? • But even if you are reasonable and well prepared, your arguments still may not change the minds of those who have strong psychological, social, political, or religious reasons for believing the way they do. • There is little hope of changing the minds of those with an emotional commitment to a different outlook. (smoking, religion, politics) • But among open-minded, reasonable people searching for the truth, there are innumerable ideas open to debate. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Writing Balanced Arguments • The focus of this chapter is somewhere between the extremes of logic and emotion, on the kind of persuasive essays you will read and write in your college courses. • In college reading you will analyze the strategies and tactics of arguments, and in your writing you will take positions on topics that are open to debate. • You will be required to support you ideas by assembling evidence based on your own logic and experience and on the logic and experience of others. • In doing so, you will need to deal with those who disagree with you by noting the strengths and weaknesses of their positions. • And throughout, you will want to sound like a person whom readers can believe and trust. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Informal Analysis of Argument • Intelligent readers try to be on the lookout for false promises and manipulative language in advertisements. • But it is not always easy to see through questionable arguments that appear to be logical. • Unless you want to be the victim of half-baked ideas and sloppy thinking, you must develop your skills as a reader of arguments. • Most arguments can be considered in terms of five elements: Purpose, Thesis, Evidence, Refutation, Persona. • By asking questions about these, you can get to the heart of an argument. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Purpose • What audience does the writer have in mind; that is, whom is the writer trying to persuade? • What is the author’s reason for wanting to persuade those people? • What might their position be on this issue? ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Thesis • Sometimes called assertion or proposition: • What is the main idea that the writer is trying to persuade the reader to accept or act on? • Is the writer’s position direct and clear? • Is the thesis presented as the only reasonable position? ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Evidence • What kinds of information does the writer cite to support the thesis? • What specific arguments does the author present? • Is the evidence sound; that is, is it authoritative, believable, and sufficient? • Does it rely on logic or emotion? • How is the evidence arrange? • Does it convince you? ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Refutation • Are the positions of opposing sides presented fairly? • Would the opposing sides agree with the writer’s understanding of their position? • Does the writer show the opposing arguments to be invalid? • Are there opposing arguments that the writer has overlooked? ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Persona • What is the writer’s attitude? • Is it hostile, cheerful, irate, reasonable, sarcastic? • Does the writer sound believable? • Is the writer obviously biased or arguing from a narrow perspective? • Does the language used add to the credibility of the author, or is it too offensive or aggressive? • Do you trust this person t be fair and open-minded? ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Writing an Argumentative Research Essay • Arguments take so many forms- Writers can find so many different ways to persuade their readers- that it would be impossible to give you an easy formula for argumentative writing. • We can give suggestions, however, and some general advice that you can follow to write effective arguments. • You need to pay attention to the principal elements that make up an argument. • The following are important ideas that should be considered whenever you write an argument: Purpose, Thesis, Audience, Persona, Evidence, Opposition, Organization. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Purpose • The best advice of all is to have a real reason for wanting to persuade others and to keep that goal in mind as you write. • Argue about a topic you care about and believe in. • Argue because you feel it is important for others to learn the truth. • Without the commitment, argument becomes an empty exercise, offering little prospect for success or satisfaction from it. • Although commitment is important, it is also important to retain an open mind and to be willing to be persuaded yourself when better ideas and new information are presented to you. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Thesis • As a college writer you should make your thesis clear to your readers. State your point in a sentence or two, early in your paper. • It should be controversial. • It should be arguable. • It should be clearly defined. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Audience • Write your argument with your audience in mind. • The tone of your writing, the language you use, and the sophistication of your evidence must all be adjusted to the interests, values, and education of your readers. • If you are writing to readers who disagree with you, try to understand their point of view, to view reality from their perspective. • Not only will this allow you to examine the issue more fully and clearly, but it will help you present your argument in a way that will be most effective with this audience. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Persona • As a writer of arguments, you must be acutely aware of how you sound to your audience. • When you write, you want to project a certain image, one that is appropriate to the situation at hand. • Being your true self means being flexible and honest. • In order to establish a believable persona, it is important to maintain a reasonable tone. • You should resist the temptation to belittle the opposition or to engage in name calling. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Evidence • It is important to win your readers’ trust through the authority of your evidence. • Research can help. • Not only can sources supply you with support for your thesis, but they can also lend their expert authority to your writing and convince your readers that you have studied the subject carefully enough to be trusted. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Opposition • Remember that any point worth arguing about will have an opposing point of view. • You must admit that in your essay. • It increases your credibility when you admit that those who differ with you are reasonable people. • You should also realize that your readers will think of the counterarguments to your position, and it is good strategy to anticipate their objections and to refute them. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Organization • Introduction: provide background information so that your readers are informed about the controversy; then state your thesis. • Evidence: Offer support for you thesis. • Opposition: Acknowledge and refute opposing points of view. • Conclusion: Draw conclusions from the evidence so as to restate the point of your thesis. ENG 102 PP2 Cooper

Argument: Reading, Writing, and Research