Personality Theory

1. Personality Theory Chapter 14: Learning Theories of Personality: The Social Learning Theory of Julian Rotter

2. An Introduction to Social Learning Theory • Social Learning Theory (SLT) applies principles of learning to personality and personality disorders. • Rotter acknowledges a varied number of influences, starting with Adler. • The term ‘social learning’ is borrowed from Miller and Dollard. • Other personality-learning theorists have appropriated it (Albert Bandura).

3. Social learning theories are not a specific kind of theory; they have a social focus. • Influences on Julian Rotter: • Kurt Lewin, J.R. Kantor, Edward C. Tolman, Edward L. Thorndike, and Clark Hull

4. SLT is a cognitive theory of learning, emphasizing goal-oriented behaviour and cognitive processes, especially the meanings of situations to the person and the concept of expectancy. • SLT is also a reinforcement theory in its emphasis on the goals (reinforcements) people seek.

5. Julian Bernard Rotter • Rotter was born in 1916 in Brooklyn, New York, the son of European immigrant parents. • It was significant to him that his father lost his successful business in the Depression. • He traces his strong social interest to this. • Entered Brooklyn College (free) to study chemistry but switched to psychology.

6. He attended lectures by Alfred Adler, which changed his major and his life course. • He earned an MA from Iowa, where he took courses from Kurt Lewin. • Rotter held an internship at Worcester State Hospital, MA, in 1938-9.

7. He obtained a PhD from Indiana University under J.R. Kantor, an unusual and charismatic behaviourist. • Kantor’s influence strongly appears in SLT. • Rotter then served in the Army. • In 1946 he joined the clinical psychology faculty of Ohio State University. • Became director of the program.

8. SLT appeared in 1954 • The result of years of theoretical development and research. • Rotter moved to the University of Connecticut in 1963. • He continued his research on the theory, especially on the expectancy concept of internal versus external control of reinforcement. • Retired in 1987; still active as a teacher

9. Emphases • The basic principles of SLT are stated in a set of postulates: • ‘The unit of investigation for the study of personality is the interaction of the individual and his meaningful environment.’ • ‘Personality constructs are not dependent for explanation upon constructs in any other field, including physiology, biology, or neurology.’

10. ‘Behaviour as described by personality constructs takes place in space and time. [A]ll such events may be described by psychological constructs. . . [and] may be described by constructs . . . in physics, chemistry, and neurology.’ • ‘Not all behaviour of an organism may be usefully described by personality constructs.’ Personality constructs are useful in describing thinking, feeling, and action in socialized people.

11. ‘A person’s experiences (or his interactions with his meaningful environment) influence each other. . . . Personality has unity.’ • ‘Behaviour as described by personality constructs has a directional aspect. It may be said to be goal-directed. The directional aspect is inferred from the effect of reinforcing conditions.’

12. ‘The behaviour of a person is determined not only by the importance of goals but also by the expectancy that these goals will occur.’

13. SLT is both a process and a content theory. • Process concepts describe learning and change in behaviour. • Content concepts characterize significant individual differences.

14. Rotter rejects the drive stimulus reduction hypothesis of S-R theory. • Reinforcements important in social life are learned early in life and are independent of primary drive states. • SLT emphasizes the importance of developing a sense of competence and a generalized expectancy of success in early childhood.

15. Learning to cope with failure is an important source of competence. • Not all children are fortunate in acquiring expectancies of success. • The problem of poor parenting • The development in children of minimal goals that are impossibly high (think of school grades as an example), which doom children to many experiences of failure

16. SLT recognizes siblings as important models in the development of expectancies. • Children will develop expectancies of need satisfaction from their own special situations in the family. • Note: the different psychological situations of only, older, and younger children (an Adlerian concept).

17. The Major Concepts of Social Learning Theory • The potentiality of occurrence of a specific behaviour is a function of expectancy and reinforcement value. • BP = f(E & RV) • Why ‘&’ and not ‘X’? • Rotter thinks a multiplicative relation between E and RV is probable, but it’s better not to specify it yet. • Note that a person might not seek a reinforcement for 2 reasons: low expectancy or goal is unimportant.

18. To account for behaviour toward broader goals in a class of situations (i.e., predict need-related behaviour), SLT introduces new terms: • Need Potential (NP): the probability of any of a set of related behaviours directed toward a particular need. • Freedom of Movement (FM): generalized expectancy. • Need Value (NV): the importance of the need to the person.

19. NP = f(FM & NV) • Low Freedom of Movement will likely lead to avoidant, self-protective behaviour or to symbolic attempts to achieve a goal. • The SLT analysis of conflict is low Freedom of Movement and high Need Value • Low generalized expectancy of satisfying an important need.

20. Implications of the Theory • The nature of disturbed behaviour. • It is often the case that neurotic behavio.r is goal-directed and purposive. • It satisfies valued needs (i.e., it is reinforced by others). • Two clinical examples: • Note in each of them the evidence of low Freedom of Movement for more appropriate and satisfying behaviour and the way others reinforce the problem behaviour.

21. How do we change problem behaviour? • Need values are usually not the difficulty and are hard to alter. • We seek to change expectancies. • Delinquency is an example. • The delinquent child often has appropriate needs (for affection, recognition) which are gratified by a rebellious peer group.

22. Delinquents learn expectancies that peers will satisfy important needs. • Do we try to increase Freedom of Movement for need satisfaction from better sources? • Yes!

23. The psychological situation • There is individual consistency in personality (Postulate 5), but behaviour also varies with situations. • Situations are composed of cues that arouse expectancies for reinforcement (positive or negative). • These cues are learned and may be unique to a specific person.

24. To predict individual behaviour, we have to know the meaning of situations important to the person (i.e., the significant cues and the expectancies they arouse).

25. Research • SLT is a research-intensive theory. • Because of the importance of the expectancy concept, much SLT research has studied expectancy learning and expectancy change. • An application of expectancy research to significant social behaviour: the behavioural choices people make.

26. This is the concept of belief in the internal or external control of reinforcement. • Internal control: the generalized expectancy that one’s own behaviour determines rewards and punishments • External control: the generalized expectancy that rewards and punishments are determined by powerful others or by luck or fate. • Note that this is a continuous dimension, not a typology. • These expectancies are acquired in the course of learning in a variety of situations (e.g., school, social relationships).

27. Questions from the Internal versus External Control Scale • a. Many of the unhappy things in people’s lives are partly due to bad luck. b. People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.

28. a. No matter how hard you try, some people just don’t like you. b. People who can’t get others to like them don’t understand how to get along with others.

29. a. In the case of the well-prepared student, there is rarely if ever such a thing as an unfair test. b. Many times, exam questions tend to be so un-related to course work that studying is really useless.

30. How Do Internal/External Beliefs Develop? • Structured interviews with mothers of children who took the internal/external control scale were scored for several relevant variables. • Results: internal control in boys associated with early independence training and less maternal concern over controlling their children’s behaviour. • In girls? No significant relationships found.

31. An observational study (home visits). • Young adults had been studied when they were children, along with their parents. • In young adulthood, they were given the internal/external control scale and the scores correlated with observational data from childhood. • Results: intentional early independence positively related to internal control; maternal affection and approval negatively related!

32. An earlier study of internal/external control in children did find maternal affection/approval positively related to internal control. • Perhaps, said the investigator, maternal affection is needed for internal control in childhood; for it to become a lasting part of personality, early and consistent independence training is critical.

33. What are the consequences of internal or external beliefs in adults? • Social action by black students in the U.S. South. • Those with internal beliefs volunteered for social action or signed up to do so.

34. There are many other studies showing that people with internal beliefs take more responsibility for their health, are less likely to conform, are less easily influenced, tend not to submit unquestioningly to authority. • These results are just what we would predict from this expectancy concept. • Please note that internals are not inevitably the guys in the white hats.

35. Social Learning Theory in Perspective • SLT: a model for other modern cognitive personality theories • Introduced the expectancy concept to personality theory. • Gave the psychological situation a central place in personality, influencing other cognitive personality theories. • Broadened the concept of motivation, emphasizing goal-directed behaviour.

36. SLT research includes both basic investigations of expectancy and reinforcement value and applications to a wider range of social behaviour (e.g., the locus of control of reinforcement). • The theory is clinically useful, providing effective approaches to a variety of problem behaviour.

37. There are a few criticisms: • SLT is a young theory, and there are questions in modern personality study it hasn’t addressed. • The genetics of behaviour and child development are examples.

38. Take-Home Messages • SLT is a learning-based theory concentrating on significant social behaviour. • It is a cognitive theory, and it views motivation as goal-directed. • Rotter was influenced by Adler, Lewin, Kantor, Tolman, Thorndike, and Hull. • SLT has influenced other modern cognitive personality theories (e.g., Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory).

39. Personal history: • Julian Rotter was born in Brooklyn, NY. • BA, Brooklyn College • Attended Adler lectures • MA, State University of Iowa • studied with Kurt Lewin • PhD, Indiana University • under J.R. Kantor

40. Ohio State University, 1946-63 • University of Connecticut, 1963-87 • Now Professor Emeritus • Emphases in SLT • A set of 7 postulates covering the basic approach and introducing concepts (psychological situation, expectancy, goal direction of behaviour).

41. An important emphasis on child development: the learning of expectancies, and the child’s situation in the family • Major concepts of SLT • behaviour equations spell out the variables of the theory and how they’re related • BP = f(E & RV) (note that the relation between E and RV isn’t specified)

42. NP = f(FM & NV), the formula for prediction of broader classes of behaviour (i.e., need-related) • The implications of low Freedom of Movement: • conflict and avoidant, self-protective behaviour

43. Implications of SLT • For neurotic behaviour • For behaviour change (modify expectancies) • 2 clinical examples • The importance of the situation in individual prediction.

44. Research • A major example: belief in the internal or external control of reinforcement. • Developmental studies of how control expectancies are learned. • Social action research. • Studies of conformity, resistance to influence, and health maintenance.

45. SLT in perspective: • A model for other cognitive social learning theories. • The important concept of the psychological situation. • Motivation as goal-directed: • A broadened approach • Strong research basis. • Significant clinical usefulness.

46. Criticisms: • A young theory. • Needs to incorporate modern developments in personality.