Work in the 21 st Century Chapter 8

1. Work in the 21st CenturyChapter 8 The Motivation to Work

2. Module 8.1:An Introduction to Motivation • Central position of motivation in psychology • Motivation concerns conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, & direction of ongoing behavior

3. Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology • First theories anchored motivation in notions of instincts (Freud) • “Instinct” gradually replaced by terms like need, motive, & drive (Maslow) • Behaviorist approach (Skinner) • Field theory (Lewin)  Group dynamics

4. Metaphors For Motivation • Person as machine • People’s behaviors & actions are reflexive & involuntary, performed without conscious awareness • Pushed by internal needs • Pulled by environmental stimuli

5. Metaphors For Motivation (cont’d) • Person as judge • Individual seeks information about extent person & others perceived as responsible for positive & negative events • Hypothesizes about foundation for events & actions of others • Person as intentional • Develops goals & plans

6. Motivational Metaphors

7. Meaning & Importance of Motivation in the Workplace • Motivation & performance Situational Constraints – (Motivation x Ability) = PERFORMANCE

9. Motivation & Work-Life Balance • Investigates whether satisfaction one experiences at work is affected by satisfaction one experiences in non-work & vice versa

10. Motivation & Attitudes • Attitudes • Relatively stable feelings or beliefs directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, or jobs • Attitudes include job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement, which are covered in more detail in Chapter 9

11. Motivation & Personality • Consistent relationships exist between personality characteristics & performance motivation • Neuroticism negatively related to performance motivation • Conscientiousness positively related to performance motivation

12. Module 8.2: Motivational Theories – Classic Approaches • Person-as-machine theories • Maslow’s need theory • Internal mechanical theory • All humans have basic set of needs that express themselves over life span of individual as internal “pushes” or drives

13. Levels in Maslow’sNeed Theory • Self-actualization (Highest Level) - Desire to develop capabilities to the fullest, or to become everything one is capable of becoming • Esteem needs - Being respected for accomplishments or capabilities • Love/Social/Belongingness needs - Desire to be accepted by others • Security needs - Need to produce a secure, safe environment • Physiological needs (Lowest Level) - Basic needs: food & water

14. Maslow’s Need Theory • Employer needs to know at what need level individual worker is operating • Group of workers may all be functioning at different need levels • Fits person-as-machine metaphor

15. Variations on Maslow’s Theory • Two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1966) • 2 basic needs, not 5 • Needs are independent (not hierarchical) • 1) Hygiene needs • Maslow’s physical & security needs • 2) Motivator needs • Maslow’s social, esteem, & self-actualization needs

16. Variations on Maslow’s Theory (cont'd) • ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972) • 3 basic needs, not 2 or 5 • Levels: • Existence (E) • Relatedness (R) • Growth (G) • Has not garnered much support

17. Reinforcement Theory: An External Mechanical theory • Behavior depends on 3 elements: stimulus, response, & reward • Contingent reward • Reward depends on response • Intermittent & continuous rewards • Intermittent rewards produce higher performance levels

18. Person-as-Scientist Models • Vroom’s VIE theory • Valence: Strength of person’s preference for particular outcome. • Instrumentality: Perceived relationship between performance & attainment of a certain outcome. • Expectancy: Perceived relationship between effort and performance.

19. Scientist Models (cont'd) • Dissonance theory • Suggests that tension exists when individuals hold incompatible thoughts • Assumes that individuals always seek some sense of “balance” & will direct their behavior toward seeking & maintaining that balance

20. Scientist Models: Equity Theory • Equity Theory: Individuals look at world in terms of comparative inputs & outcomes • Compare their inputs & outcomes to those of “comparison others” Figure 8.1 Mathematical Description of Equity Theory

21. Module 8.3: Modern Approaches to Work Motivation • Person-as-Intentional Approach • Goal-setting theory • Notion of goal as a motivational force • Distinction between goal acceptance & goal commitment Lawrence M. Sawyer/Getty Images

22. Figure 8.2: Diagram of Goal Theory

23. Goal-Setting Theory (cont'd) • Feedback loop important between knowledge of results & intermediate stages • Control theory • Based on principle of feedback loop • Assumes individuals compare a standard to an actual outcome & adjust their behavior to bring outcome into agreement with a standard

24. Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory • Self-Efficacy is a belief in one’s capacity to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal • Developed & increased by: • Mastery experiences • Modeling • Social persuasion • Physiological states

25. Common Themes inModern Approaches to Motivation • Intention plays key role in motivated behavior • Concept of feedback critical in considering anything but the simplest act at one point in time • Theory should include element of person-as-scientist • Theory should include concept of self-assessment • Some non-cognitive element in the “ultimate” motivation theory

26. Module 8.4:Practical Issues in Motivation • Motivation can be measured • Motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ) • Measures 6 aspects of “general” motivation • Desire to learn • Mastery • Other referenced goals • Competitiveness • Worry • Emotionality

27. Table 8.2: Dimensions and Sample Items from Motivational Trait Questionnaire

28. Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation • Hofstede’s cultural theory • Cultures differ on 5 dimensions • Collectivism/individualism • Uncertainty avoidance • Masculinity/femininity • Power dimensions • Long-term vs. short-term orientation • Application to MTQ D. Normark/PhotoLink/Getty Images

29. Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation (cont'd) • Types of motivational practices employed by managers across all cultures • Differential distribution of rewards • Participation in goal setting & decision making • Design & redesign of jobs & organizations • Quality improvement

30. Generational Differences & Work Motivation • Generation • Defined by group members who share birth years & significant life events • e.g., Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, Generation Yers D. Berry/PhotoLink/Getty Images

31. Generational Differences (cont'd) • Generation Xers vs. Baby Boomers -- Initial Research indicates that: • Younger employees appear to be more “me” oriented • Today’s workers value “pride in work” less than workers of 1974 • Work is less important now than 25 years ago • Work becomes less idealized as workers age

32. Motivational Interventions • Contingent rewards • Job Enrichment (Tied to 5 job characteristics) • Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Autonomy • Task feedback

33. Motivational Interventions (cont'd) • Productivity Measurement & Enhancement System (ProMES) • Utilizes goal setting, rewards, & feedback to increase motivation & performance • Evidence shows significant gains in productivity following use of ProMES

34. ProMES Steps for Implementation • Forming a design team • Identifying objectives • Identifying indicators 4) Defining contingencies 5) Designing the feedback system 6) Giving & responding to feedback 7) Monitoring the system