Chapter 19

1. Chapter 19 Air Pollution

2. Core Case Study: When Is a Lichen Like a Canary? • Lichens can warn us of bad air because they absorb it as a source of nourishment. Figure 19-1

3. Core Case Study: When Is a Lichen Like a Canary? • Some lichen species are sensitive to specific air-polluting chemicals. • After Chernobyl, more than 70,000 reindeer had to be killed because they ate highly radioactive lichens. • Because lichens are widespread, long-lived, and anchored in place, they can help track pollution to its source.

4. STRUCTURE AND SCIENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE • The atmosphere consists of several layers with different temperatures, pressures, and compositions. Figure 19-2

5. Atmospheric pressure (millibars) Temperature Pressure Thermosphere Mesopause Heating via ozone Mesosphere Altitude (kilometers) Altitude (miles) Stratopause Stratosphere Tropopause Ozone “layer” Heating from the earth Troposphere Pressure = 1,000 millibars at ground level (Sea level) Temperature (˚C) Fig. 19-2, p. 440

6. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE • Troposphere: innermost layer, decreasing temp, movement causes weather, contains 80% of air mass & 99% of H2O vapor • Stratosphere: increasing temp, Ozone filters out most of the sun’s UV radiation. Very stable, little mixing • Mesosphere: decreasing temp • Thermosphere: outer most layer, increasing temp (up to 1500oC) 2 sub layers: ionosphere-northern lights, exosphere- satellites

7. AIR POLLUTION • Some primary air pollutants may react with one another or with other chemicals in the air to form secondary air pollutants. Figure 19-3

8. Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants CO CO2 SO2 NO NO2 SO3 Most hydrocarbons HNO3 H3SO4 Most suspended particles H2O2 O3 PANs Most NO3– and SO42– salts Natural Stationary Sources Mobile Fig. 19-3, p. 442

9. Natural Processes • The activities of humans make a make a major contribution to global air pollution, but natural processes can also be responsible. • Lightning causes forest fires, oxidizes nitrogen, and creates ozone. • Volcanic activity releases toxic, corrosive, & greenhouse gases. Volcanic particulates can also block out sunlight and contribute to global cooling.

10. Industry Sulfur doxide SO2 Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Carbon monoxide CO Hydrogen sulfide H2S Dust, smoke Volcanoes Sulfur oxides Carbon dioxide Volcanic dust Motor vehicles Hydrocarbons HC Nitric oxide NO Carbon monoxide CO Smoke and lead Causes of Air Pollution Photochemical smog In the presence of direct sunlight, the mixture of pollutants from primary sources reacts to form ozone, nitric acid, PANs (peroxyacyl nitrates), and organic compounds such as formaldehyde. Volcanoes and forest fires are a natural source of air pollutants Emissions from power plants and industry, as well as burning fossil fuels Petrol and diesel combustion engines Methane from the belching and flatus of ruminants

11. Major Air Pollutants • Carbon oxides: • Carbon monoxide (CO) is a highly toxic gas that forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials. • 93% of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the troposphere occurs as a result of the carbon cycle. • 7% of CO2 in the troposphere occurs as a result of human activities (mostly burning fossil fuels). • It is not regulated as a pollutant under the U.S. Clean Air Act.

12. Major Air Pollutants • Nitrogen oxides and nitric acid: • Nitrogen oxide (NO) forms when nitrogen and oxygen gas in air react at the high-combustion temperatures in automobile engines and coal-burning plants. NO can also form from lightening and certain soil bacteria. • NO reacts with air to form NO2. • NO2 reacts with water vapor in the air to form nitric acid (HNO3) and nitrate salts (NO3-) which are components of acid deposition. • Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a greenhouse gas, from fertilizer, animal waste, & burning fossil fuel

13. Major Air Pollutants • Sulfur dioxide (SO2)andsulfuric acid: • About one-third of SO2 in the troposphere occurs naturally through the sulfur cycle. • Two-thirds come from human sources, mostly combustion (S+ O2 SO2) of sulfur-containing coal and from oil refining and smelting of sulfide ores. • SO2 in the atmosphere can be converted to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and sulfate salts (SO42-) that return to earth as a component of acid deposition.

14. Major Air Pollutants • Suspended particulate matter (SPM): • Consists of a variety of solid particles and liquid droplets small and light enough to remain suspended in the air. • The most harmful forms of SPM are fine particles (PM-10, with an average diameter < 10 micrometers) and ultrafine particles (PM-2.5). • According to the EPA, SPM is responsible for about 60,000 premature deaths a year in the U.S.

15. Major Air Pollutants • Ozone (O3): • Is a highly reactive gas that is a major component of photochemical smog. • It can • Cause and aggravate respiratory illness. • Can aggravate heart disease. • Damage plants, rubber in tires, fabrics, and paints.

16. Major Air Pollutants • Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): • Hydrocarbons • emitted by the leaves of many plants • Methane • 1/3 natural sources: plants, wetlands, termites, anaerobic respiration • 2/3 from human sources: landfills, oil & natural gas wells, cattle belching & flatulence, and rice paddies • Other VOCs: industrial solvents (trichlorethylene, benzene, vinyl chloride) and components of gasoline plastics, drugs, synthetic rubber. • Long-term exposure to benzene can cause cancer, blood disorders, and immune system damage.

17. Major Air Pollutants • Radon (Rn): • Is a naturally occurring radioactive gas found in some types of soil and rock. • It can seep into homes and buildings sitting above such deposits. • Causes lung cancer

18. URBAN OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION • Industrial smog is a mixture of sulfur dioxide, droplets of sulfuric acid, and a variety of suspended solid particles emitted mostly by burning coal. • In most developed countries where coal and heavy oil is burned, industrial smog is not a problem due to reasonably good pollution control or with tall smokestacks that transfer the pollutant to rural areas.

19. Case Study: South Asia’s Massive Brown Cloud • A huge dark brown cloud of industrial smog, caused by coal-burning in countries such as China and India, stretches over much of southeastern Asia. • In areas beneath the cloud, photosynthesis is reduced interfering with crop development. • Fine particles and droplets in the cloud appear to be changing regional climates (including rainfall). • May have contributed to floods in 2002 and 2005 which killed thousands of people.

20. Sunlight plus Cars Equals Photochemical Smog • Photochemical smog is a mixture of air pollutants formed by the reaction of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic hydrocarbons under the influence of sunlight.

21. Sunlight plus Cars Equals Photochemical Smog • Mexico City is one of the many cities in sunny, warm, dry climates with many motor vehicles that suffer from photochemical smog. Figure 19-4

22. Factors Influencing Levels of Outdoor Air Pollution • Outdoor air pollution can be reduced by: • settling out, precipitation, sea spray, winds, and chemical reactions. • Outdoor air pollution can be increased by: • urban buildings (slow wind dispersal of pollutants), mountains (promote temperature inversions), and high temperatures (promote photochemical reactions).

23. Temperature Inversions • Cold, cloudy weather in a valley surrounded by mountains can trap air pollutants (left). • Areas with sunny climate, light winds, mountains on three sides and an ocean on the other (right) are susceptible to inversions. Figure 19-5

24. Descending warm air mass Warmer air Inversion layer Inversion layer Sea breeze Increasing altitude Decreasing temperature Fig. 19-5, p. 447

25. ACID DEPOSITION • Sulfur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulates can react in the atmosphere to produce acidic chemicals that can travel long distances before returning to the earth’s surface. • Tall smokestacks reduce local air pollution but can increase regional air pollution.

26. ACID DEPOSITION • Acid deposition consists of rain, snow, dust, or gas with a pH lower than 5.6. Figure 19-6

27. Wind Transformation to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) Windborne ammonia gas and particles of cultivated soil partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts Wet acid depostion (droplets of H2SO4 and HNO3 dissolved in rain and snow) Nitric oxide (NO) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NO Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts) Acid fog Farm Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone become acidic Ocean Lakes in deep soil high in limestone are buffered Fig. 19-6, p. 448

28. ACID DEPOSITION • pH measurements in relation to major coal-burning and industrial plants. Figure 19-7

29. ACID DEPOSITION • Acid deposition • contributes to chronic respiratory disease • can leach toxic metals (such as lead and mercury) from soils and rocks into acidic lakes used as sources for drinking water.

30. ACID DEPOSITION • Acid deposition • Damages statues, monuments, buildings • Kills fish • Harms crops & trees • Is a regional problem downwind from coal-burning facilities.

31. ACID DEPOSITION Figure 19-8

32. ACID DEPOSITION • Air pollution is one of several interacting stresses that can damage, weaken, or kill trees and pollute surface and groundwater. Figure 19-9

33. Emissions SO2 NOx Acid deposition H2O2 O3 Others PANs Susceptibility to drought, extreme cold, insects, mosses, & disease organisms Reduced photo-synthesis and growth Direct damage to leaves & bark Tree death Soil acidification Reduced nutrient & water uptake Root damage Leaching of soil nutrients Release of toxic metal ions Acids Lake Groundwater Fig. 19-9, p. 451

34. Solutions Acid Deposition Prevention Cleanup Reduce air pollution by improving energy efficiency Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes Reduce coal use Add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes Increase natural gas use Increase use of renewable energy resources Burn low-sulfur coal Remove SO2 particulates & NOx from smokestack gases Remove NOx from motor vehicular exhaust Tax emissions of SO2 Fig. 19-10, p. 452

35. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION • Indoor air pollution usually is a greater threat to human health than outdoor air pollution. • According to the EPA, the four most dangerous indoor air pollutants in developed countries are: • Tobacco smoke. • Formaldehyde. • Radioactive radon-222 gas. • Very small fine and ultrafine particles.

36. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION • Indoor air pollutants 2 – 5 times higher than outdoor levels • Source of cancer risk: 6000 deaths/yr • Pesticide residue brought in on shoes • Mold & mildew greatest cause of allergic reactions • Dust mite & coachroach droppings increase asthma rates by 3x

37. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION • Household dust mites that feed on human skin and dust, live in materials such as bedding and furniture fabrics. • Can cause asthma attacks and allergic reactions in some people. Figure 19-12

38. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION • Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) • 1 in 5 commercial buildings considered “sick” • When 20% or more report symptoms when inside the building and/or report relief of symptoms when outside • Exposes employees to health risks from unhealthy levels of indoor air pollutants • Dizzyness, headaches, coughing, shortness of breath, nausea, burning eyes, sore throats, respiratory infections, flu-like symptoms, skin irritation, chronic fatigue • Buildings at risk • Newer – formaldehyde & other VOCs offgasses, also less gas exchange because more air-tight • Older – lead, asbestos, mold, mildew, poor ventilation, temperature, & humidity control

39. Para-dichlorobenzene Chloroform Tetrachloroethylene Formaldehyde 1, 1, 1- Trichloroethane Styrene Nitrogen Oxides Benzo-a-pyrene Particulates Tobacco Smoke Radon-222 Asbestos Carbon Monoxide Methylene Chloride Fig. 19-11, p. 453

40. Indoor Air Pollution • Major indoor air pollutants: • Radon is a radioactive gas that results from the decay of radium and uranium found in the bedrock under buildings. Responsible for tens of thousands of lung cancer deaths each year. Prevention: Remove radon by sealing or ventilating where radon enters the home. • Molds and allergens are caused by moisture induced growth of mold and mildew and the release of animal dander and plant pollen. Prevention: filtration, humidity and dust control methods • Carbon monoxide can be released from tobacco smoke, space heaters that use fossil fuel and wood burning stoves. Causes headaches and dizziness. Prevention: Proper ventilation Asbestos Formaldehyde Molds & Allergens Lead Carbon Monoxide Radon

41. Indoor Air Pollution • Major indoor air pollutants: • VOCs like formaldehyde that can be associated with new building material like furniture and carpeting. Causes irritation of eyes, nose, throat and lungs Prevention: Ventilation or alternative materials • Asbestos fibers are present in floor or ceiling tiles and insulation materials of older buildings. Long term inhalation can lead to lung disease or mesothelioma. Prevention: Removal or sealing • Lead can be found in old plumbing pipes and fixtures, older paints, and some ceramic glazes. Causes impaired mental and physical development. Prevention: alternative paints or plumbing Asbestos Formaldehyde Molds & Allergens Lead Carbon Monoxide Radon

42. Case Study: Radioactive Radon • Radon-222, a radioactive gas found in some soils and rocks, can seep into some houses and increase the risk of lung cancer. Sources and paths of entry for indoor radon-222 gas. Figure 19-13

43. Outlet vents for furnaces and dryers Open window Openings around pipes Cracks in wall Slab joints Wood stove Cracks in floor Clothes dryer Sump pump Furnace Slab Radon-222 gas Uranium-238 Soil Fig. 19-13, p. 454

44. HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION • Your respiratory system can help protect you from air pollution, but some air pollutants can overcome these defenses. Figure 19-14

45. Epithelial cell Cilia Goblet cell (secreting mucus) Nasal cavity Oral cavity Pharynx (throat) Mucus Trachea (windpipe) Bronchioles Bronchus Alveolar duct Right lung Alveoli Alveolar sac (sectioned) Bronchioles Fig. 19-14, p. 455

46. HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION Normal human lungs (left) and the lungs of a person who died of emphysema (right). Figure 19-15

47. Air Pollution is a Big Killer • Each year, air pollution prematurely kills about 3 million people, mostly from indoor air pollution in developing countries. • In the U.S., the EPA estimates that annual deaths related to indoor and outdoor air pollution range from 150,000 to 350,000. • According to the EPA, each year more than 125,000 Americans get cancer from breathing diesel fumes.

48. Air Pollution is a Big Killer • Spatial distribution of premature deaths from air pollution in the United States. Figure 19-16

49. PREVENTING & REDUCING AIR POLLUTION • The Clean Air Acts in the United States have greatly reduced outdoor air pollution from six major pollutants: • Carbon monoxide • Nitrogen oxides • Sulfur dioxides • Suspended particulate matter (less than PM-10) • Ozone • Lead