Chapter Four: An Introduction to Alternative Data-Gathering and the Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports

1. Chapter Four: An Introduction to Alternative Data-Gathering and the Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports

2. Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies • The experiment as a method of data gathering is by no means the best strategy, despite its obvious strengths. • No all topics lend themselves to experiments. • Experiments have weaknesses that other data gathering strategies do not have.

3. Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies • There are other types of data gathering strategies which have better external validity and are NOT characterized by their artificiality. • Examples of alternative data-gathering strategies: social surveys, participant observation, case studies, unobtrusive measures.

4. Social surveys • A means of data gathering in which a segment of the population reports their attitudes and/or behavior. • IE: (questionnaires, interviews, telephone contact) • Can be powerful tools for obtaining quantitative data for statistical analysis; Statistics can control for RCF’s

5. Participant Observation • Occurs when a researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group. • Favorite tool of anthropologists. • For some subjects participant observation may be the only visible data-gathering strategy.

6. Case Studies • Case studies- In-depth analysis of one or a few cases. • Represent a commitment to a qualitative or sensitizing strategy. • Provide a micro-criminological or in-depth close-up of only a few subjects • IE: Edwin Sutherland’s The Professional Thief (1937), Clifford Shaw’s “Brothers in Crime”

7. Life Histories • Generally involve the analysis of diaries, letters, biographies, and autobiographies. • IE: Clifford Shaw’s “The Jack-roller” (1930) • Oral histories are “recounts of events by participants.”

8. Unobtrusive Measures • Non-reactive methods of data gathering. • Any methods of gathering data in which the subjects are NOT aware of being analyzed. • IE: Analysis of existing data, UCR data, trace analysis • Usually an inexpensive alternative to data gathering.

9. The Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports • Traditionally the most widely used measure of crime in the United States. • Began in 1930 by U.S. Department of Justice. • Compilation of national crime statistics. Law enforcement agencies send statistics to DOJ.

10. The Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports • The UCR comprises crimes known to, and recorded by, local police departments. • These statistics do not take into account the “dark figure of crime.” • In the 1980’s about 98% of metropolitan police agencies reported its crimes to the FBI.

11. The Crime Index • The UCR is divided into Part 1 and Part 2 crimes. • Part 1 consists of index crimes which are MAJOR felonies reported to the police: • Murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, arson

12. The Crime Index • Part 2 crimes are non-index crimes: • Includes minor offenses, such as, simple assault, vandalism, gambling, and drunkenness • The FBI can not vouch for the validity of reports, but it examines them for accuracy, eliminates and makes special inquiries for crass errors

13. Crime Rate • The crime rate is expressed as the number of crimes per unit of population size. • Permits a fair comparison of different size units. • Crime rate = # of index crimes X 100.000 Population

14. Calculating the Crime Rate • This is very important. Newspapers are sold and jobs are won and lost depending on what the crime rate is. • Question: If the City of Houston has a population of 4,900,000 with 506 homicides a year. How would you calculate the homicide rate?

15. Limitations of UCR Data • Recorded statistics represent only a portion of the true crime rate. (Probably 2x as much). • Citizens’ tendency to report crime may change because of a general change in public morality(barroom brawls)

16. Limitations of UCR Data • Most victimless crimes and white collar crimes are not contained in the UCR • Changes in a police department’s statistical tabulating process may affect how the crime rate is recorded. • Political pressure to lie.

17. Limitations of UCR Data • Hierarchy rule - Only the most serious crime is reported in any single incident. • The crime index is an un-weighted index - all crimes count the same; IE: A murder counts the same as a bicycle theft.

18. Limitations of UCR Data • Crime index may cause police agencies to concentrate on these crimes at the expense of other crimes. • Larceny and arson should not be included as an index crime. • In cases of arson it can be hard to tell whether or not intentional.

19. Crime dip • Stabilization or decline in crime. • Demographic shifts may provide some explanation for rapidly rising or falling crime rates. • Criminologists using UCR data were able to forecast the crime dip in the 1980’s.

20. UCR Redesign • Beginning in 1977, the International Association of Chiefs of Police and the National Sheriffs Association called for a major redesign of the UCR system • Today the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is replacing the UCR.

21. National Incident-Based Reporting System • NIBRS uses fifty-two data elements to describe: victims, offenders, offenders, and circumstances of crimes. • 1st overhaul of UCR in 50 yrs • NIBRS includes many different types of crimes, such as, bribery, pornography, fraud, and non-forcible sex offenses.

22. National Incident-Based Reporting System • NIBRS will eventually replace the UCR as the official source of crimes reported to law enforcement agencies. • Represents a new way of thinking about crime. • Illustrates close partnership among BJS, FBI, and over 17,000 law enforcement agencies

23. NIBRS versus UCR • 1.) Incident-Based v. Summary Reporting: NIBRS reports include fifty-two data elements describing victims, offenders, and circumstances of the crime. • 2.) NIBRS includes more possible types of crimes: UCR has 8 Part I Crimes, NIBRS has 46 Group A

24. NIBRS versus UCR • 3.) NIBRS, unlike UCR, makes a distinction between attempted and completed crimes. • 4.) Elimination of the “hierarchy rule” (under UCR). Cites all offenses within the same incident. • 5.) Designation of “Computer Crimes”

25. NIBRS versus UCR • 6.) Better statistical analysis: Greater opportunities for examining interrelationships between many variables such as offenses, property, victims, offenders, and arrestees. • 7.) NIBRS includes “Crimes Against Society” - ie: prostitution, drug offenses, gambling, pornography.

26. NIBRS versus UCR • 8.) Greater specificity of data: Because NIBRS collects more specific information, which can lead to better criminal profiling. IE: NIBRS tells a researcher whether or not drugs/alcohol were involved; injuries sustained; types of weapons; relationship between victim and offender; location. A plethora of information.

27. Interpol, United Nations, World Health Organizations • The above organizations represent an international effort with respect to crime statistics. • IE: Interpol puts out its crime statistics. • This type of data may give insight into crimes in other countries and provide a basis for comparison.

28. Interpol, United Nations, World Health Organizations • CAUTION: Some of the same problems in analyzing international data are the same as those affecting the UCR. • Problems: Varying definitions of crime across countries, differences in law, differences in recording practices, different urban/rural, economic structures, political factors