John Bennett, M.Ed. Ph.D. bennett.paris@gmail

1. Early childhood education and care for children in poverty Early Years Policy Round Table Belfast, 15 November 2012 John Bennett, M.Ed. Ph.D. bennett.paris@gmail.com

2. Children in poverty The EU, OECD, the US and Canada all use different yardsticks to measure poverty. In general, poverty rates in the EU seem higher, as the EU poverty measure is the most stringent. In the EU definition, the term ‘children in poverty’ refers to children living in households “with an equivalised disposable income below the risk-of-poverty threshold, which is set in the EU at 60% of the national median equivalised disposable income (after social transfers).” Eurostat (2012)… The US uses an 'absolute' poverty measure - the minimum amount needed to meet the subsistence needs of a household. Severely materially deprived personshave living conditions constrained by a lack of resources, and experience at least 4 out of the 9 following deprivation items, that is, they cannot afford 1) to pay rent/mortgage or utility bills on time, 2) to keep their home warm, 3) to face unexpected expenses, 4) to eat meat, fish or a protein equivalent every second day, 5) a one week holiday away from home, 6) a car, 7) a washing machine, 8) a colour TV, or 9) a telephone (including mobile phone). People living in households with very low work intensity. These are persons aged 0-59 who live in households where on average the adults (aged 18-59, students excluded) worked less than 20% of their total work potential during the past year Beyond these technical definitions, it should be understood that poverty is not just a question of low income but also implies a lack of sufficient cultural and social capital (Bourdieu, 1973)… especially at family level.

3. Poverty in Europe Source: Eurostat (2012) Ireland (Barnardos, 2012) - Children at risk of poverty rose from 18.6% in 2009 to 19.5% in 2010. Severe poverty means that these children are living in households with incomes below 60% of the national median income and experiencing deprivation based on the agreed eleven deprivation indicators. This can mean going 24 hours without a substantial meal or being cold because parents are unable to afford to heat the home (CSO EU SILC 2010).

4. A caveat about access tables Before looking at rates of access, a word of caution is necessary about reading access tables. Countries can appear impressive with a 90+ per cent enrolment rate at the age of 3 or 4 years, but access rates do not necessarily provide information on key questions, e.g. Do the figures indicate enrolments or regular attendance? For how much time each day do children have access? Does the daily and yearly timing of the service allow important externalities to be achieved, such as, gender equality, access of parents to work, time for disadvantadged children to catch up? Is there an entitlement to services and is it aligned with parental leave policies? What is the quality of the service provided in terms of , the persons educating the children, the financing per child, the buildings and space (including outdoor space) allocated to young children; the pedagogical materials provided and the child:staff ratios? Who are the children not having access to services?

5. Access rates of children under 3 years to early childhood services Source: OECD Family Data Base, 2012 (year of reference: 2009)

6. Access rates at 4 years

7. What are the enrolment rates of children in poverty? Across Europe, we do not have exact figures or percentages. We do know that: In European countries, work status, income and parental education levels are significantly correlated with take-up of childcare. All the evidence points in the same direction: the more disadvantaged the child, the less likely he or she was and is to attend ECEC, with (in some countries) the exception of children from lone-parent families… Children with mothers with a degree-level qualification were three times as likely to attend services as children with mothers who have an education level below lower secondary completion (Bennett and Moss, 2010) There is no statistical significant relationship between ethnicity and receipt of either formal and informal childcare, when data is controlled for differences in the socio-demographic profile (differences in work status, income, family size…) of families from different ethnic backgrounds. In sum, we return to the basic position of Zigler (2003), Pisa (2004), Ladd (2011), and other analysts: severe family poverty, low parental education, unequal structures and exclusionary attitudes toward poor or ethnic groups remain the greatest barriers to education achievement.

8. Why is family poverty so damaging? • Health and developmental risks • The pre-natal and infancy period: Poor nutrition and the exposure of expectant mothers to stress or toxins during pregnancy lead in too many instances to low birth weight, stunting, chronic ill-health, and childhood disabilities. Through the process of biological embedding, negative experiences are programmed during infancy into the functioning of developing biological and behavioural systems. Once early childhood has passed, these systems are very difficult to modify, including significant delays in IQ and cognitive functioning. The impact of family poverty is particularly strong on infants and young children • The early childhood period: Severe poverty affects child development very negatively. In Western countries, the young child born into severe poverty often suffers from: lack of basic material necessities, including food; family dysfunction; limited social support; exposure to damaging substances either self inflicted by parents (smoking, alcohol, drug and medicine abuse) or imposed by unhealthy living conditions (see Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009; the Marmot Review…) • Risks for education • The British researchers (Nicilotti & Rabe, 2010: ISER Working Paper 2010, No. 26) apportion the relative influence of family and neighbourhood on educational attainment as follows: 10-15% to neighbourhood; around 45% to family influence. • Severe poverty is frequently linked to low parental education levels, leading to language and cultural poverty in the home. The Marmot Review (2010), Fair Society, Healthy Lives, London

9. Vocabulary 1200 Affluent families Middle-class families 600 Poorer families 0 12 16 20 24 26 32 36 Age- Months Vocabulary Growth – First 3 Years Source: B.Hart & T. Risley. Meaningful Differences in Everyday Experiences of Young American Children, 1995

10. What can be done during infancy? Source: Adapted by UNICEF from the ECD Systems Working Group, Minnesota, 2007

11. What can be done at pre-school level? – some European solutions Maintain universal services in which explicit but non-stigmatising targeting is practisedEducation research shows that the socialization and language development of children coming from families with little formal education improves far more rapidly when they are mixed with middle-class children. (Harlen & Malcolm, 1999). Challenges… A universal curriculum but with more financing for centres catering for children in poverty… better child:staff ratios, materials, attention to experiences and language A curriculum appropriate for young children aiming for holistic development, children’s participation, and learning … positive place-based, project work in mixed-age groups… Comprehensive services: health screening, nutrition, links with social services… Well-qualified, diversity-trained, experienced teachers… “observing and recording children’s developmental stage in different domains so that they can respond appropriately”, who audit, reflect on, document and research their practice in teams… but avoiding the excesses of the current quality and teacher evaluation discourses. Trained to work with parents and neighbourhoods… bridging personnel, specific teacher training…

12. Child:staff ratios in early education Source, OECD EAG, 2012 Note: The figure of 14-15 children per teacher in the United States is for the ‘kindergarten’ class, 5-6 years. For children of 3 and 4 years in state-funded preschools, 45 of 51 States kept the child:staff ratio at or below 10:1 per teacher in 2011 (NIEER, 2012 The State of Preschool, 2011).

13. The role of early education • The early childhood period is a moment when basic personality traits, values and attitudes are laid down • The early childhood curriculum and teachers need to address present and future themes that can prepare children for school and life: • To have a more adequate notion of readiness for school: “a more balanced programme that focuses directly on socio-emotional development, language, movement and conceptual development”. • To live together with respect and appreciation for diversity • To encourage fairness and empathy, so that social justice will survive • To encourage child initiative (the agency of the child), social action and to express oneself with courage so that our democracies can survive • To discourage violence and criticism of others so that useless tensions, racism and wars do not return again to Europe… the significant role of N.I. • To make progress in our curricula toward an agreed values framework, e.g. the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, that enables learning to live together…

14. An example: the Swedish Curriculum for Preschool Democracy forms the foundation of the pre-school. For this reason all pre-school activity should be carried out in accordance with fundamental democratic values… An important task of the pre-school is to establish and help children acquire the values on which our society is based. The inviolability of human life, individual freedom and integrity, the equal value of all people, equality between the genders as well as solidarity with the weak and vulnerable are all values that the preschool shall actively promote in its work with children. The preschool should take into account and develop children’s ability to take responsibility and manage their social life in society so that solidarity and tolerance are established at an early stage. The pre-school should encourage and strengthen the child’s compassion and empathy for others. All activities should be characterised by care for the individual and aim at developing a sense of empathy and consideration for others, as well as openness and respect for the differences in the way people think and live.

15. Thank you!