The Problem of Universals

1. The Problem of Universals The Problem of the One and the Many Recall the principle of identity! Each Being is WHAT it is.

2. Socrates and Plato Socrates – inquired about the essential form of particular things, such as virtues, courage, matter, substance… 1st to identify the WHAT of a thing – looking at the essential form of particular things – it would be the root cause for each premise…its force of necessity to bear upon… Plato – takes it further and states that everything that is intelligible (universal) has an essential form…meaning, anything intelligible will have an essential quality that renders it intelligible or universal…

3. Plato of Athens (427 – 347 BC) • Therefore, to accept the principle “Each being is WHAT it is” is to say that each being (intelligible/universal) thing is in its essential form… • The WHAT of a thing bears upon the quality of a thing…its kind, type, nature…its essence or essential form… • This is also known as a “things”…? • Primary Cause • Plato employed 4 concepts to help identify a “things” essential quality…

4. Universal Qualities4 terms to help explain a “things” essential quality… • Eidos: a things common idea or form. • Genos: kind or type, as in “the kind or type of thing it is”. • Physis: a things nature or its natural state/qualities. • Ousia: a things essence or being…what is it essentially – its force of necessity.

5. The PROBLEM of the One and the Many • There are many human beings in this classroom, but they are all human. What makes us different? What makes us similar? EUGENICS !!! Is this a particular or universal “thing/concept”?

6. The PROBLEM of the One and the Many • There are many different kinds of triangles: equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, right angle, but they are all designated under the one term. Which is?

7. The PROBLEM of the One and the Many • There are many different dogs that do not look the same, are of various different colors, shapes, and sizes, but they are all designated under the one term. Which is?

8. The PROBLEM of the One and the Many • There are many particular trees, I.e., oak, maple, palm, apple, orange, etc., and they all look different. And yet they all have one quality in common: each one is still a tree!

9. Question to think aboutWhat is this one quality by which all various trees are the same?What is this one quality by which all the various individual humans are the same?

10. Universals Plato saw that many particular things can belong to one and the same species, or have one and the same nature, kind, type, essence. If they all belong to one and the same thing, then they must be have a universal quality. We in this room all have the same physis or nature (namely, a human nature). We have the same eidos or form, genos or kind—we are the same kind of being. We are essentially (ousia) the same out of a force of necessity.

11. Question? • Are all particular individuals in this classroom really one at some level? Is oneness a reality? • Is there one quality that all humans hold in common? • Or, is oneness just an appearance that results from language? • For example: we just call every individual “human”, but outside the mind is there no real oneness or sameness.

12. Universals If you answered no, there is no universal quality, then oneness is just an appearance that results from employing one word ‘human’… Then all men are not essentially equal. We are not really one and the universal statement “All men are mortal” is a fallacy...but which fallacy? The fallacy of a double standard…“What’s right/good for me is not right/good for you”

13. Universals If you answered yes, then there is a real oneness about us, we really are essentially one, we really do have the same nature, and this would be the more common sense viewpoint. However, the difficulty now is to determine “what” accounts for that oneness. Rationality? Humanity? What is the definition of a human being?

14. Properties of essences In the example of humanity: oneness (there is only one humanity, but many humans) universal (not particular, there is only one human race) unchanging (the essence of humanity does not change with the death of 1, 5, or 1000 men) Intelligible (not sensible, doesn’t serve the senses): one can sense a human, but one cannot see, touch, or hear humanity, or canine, or triangularity. Essences are intelligible, known only by the mind, through reason alone.

15. Question to think about If a person is unable to reason, for example, if he is developmentally disabled or in a coma, is he still human? Does this person still have an essential quality that makes them human?

16. The PROBLEM of the One and the Many • Essences are not particular, they are not plural……they are one and the same, they are universal… • This is the real difference between reason/intellect and sensation… • Sensation bears upon particulars only • The intellect apprehends the essence of a thing by reasoning through all of its particulars to understand its very being…its force of necessity…the whole picture

17. It is self-refuting do deny that we must reason through apprehending the essence of things…to deny this would mean that “things” lack a force of necessity… • Therefore, it would be impossible to know the essence of a thing…everything would be a matter of opinion… • If this is true and knowledge is impossible, then we don’t know what an opinion would be in the first place… • What would things bear upon?

18. Definitions Definitions aim to define “what” something is. To define a thing is to determine the intelligible limits or boundaries of a thing… a “thing” with an essence is a determinate, limited thing that is intelligible by nature… To question ‘what a thing is’ is to inquire of its essence, or what it is essentially. A force of necessity? A definition expresses the essence of a thing…a good definition will contain only that which belongs to the essence of a thing… Definition of a human being? Every definition is composed of two parts…

19. Definition Genus: that which is established essentially of several things but also differ in species. Specific Difference: that which reduces the genus to a specific species. Genus + specific difference = species or essence / an interpretation or description of “what” it is essentially. Recall: a good definition will contain only that which belongs to the essence of a thing

20. Dog Cat Horse Human Bird Any dog is _____ Any cat is _____ Any horse is ____ Any human is _____ Any bird is _____ Genus What is predicated essentially of all these things but they differ in species? The answer will be your genus.

21. Genus Any dog is an animal Any cat is an animal Any horse is an animal Any human is an animal Any bird is an animal Animal is the genus of the definition of all these things. What is the specific difference that reduces the genus of animal in each example to their respected specific differences? What is the specific difference for the species ‘human being’?

22. Ans: Rationality – the ability to reason, which implies the ability to make judgments, which implies the ability to apprehend essences Definition of a Human Being: a rational animal genus Specific difference

23. The Three Acts of the Intellect • Intelligence is: the ability to apprehend universal essences. That is why we can make universal statements, such as; • All men are mortal. • However, the definition of a thing is far more than simple apprehension… • In order to grasp the definition/essence of a thing we must first apprehend the thing’s essence but then go beyond… • This leads us to the 3 Acts of the Intellect… • It is through these 3 acts that we understand the difference between intelligence and sensation……otherwise, we would not be able to draw rational conclusions…

24. The Three Acts of the Intellect • Simple Apprehension: The apprehension, awareness, or understanding of the essence. Example: canine… • Judgment: composition and division. For example: combining ‘man’ and ‘mortal’, we make the judgment: all men are mortal. Or, we can divide or differentiate: some men are not white. • Reasoning: drawing a conclusion from given judgments. Example: A valid syllogism.

25. Examples of Definitions • Animal: Living sentient creature. • Triangle: A plane figure with three sides. • Temperance: The virtue that moderates the pleasures of touch. • Fortitude: The virtue that moderates fear and daring. • Bird: warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrate characterized by feathers and forelimbs modified as wings. • Polygon: A closed plane figure made up of several line segments that are joined together.