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Sociology Terms – Unit 4. Chapter 11 – The Family. family. Family refers to a group of people who are related by blood, marriage or adoption and share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of a society.
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family Family refers to a group of people who are related by blood, marriage or adoption and share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of a society. The notion of family has changed greatly over the centuries but the characteristics and objective of family remains largely intact.
marriage Marriage is a legal union based on mutual rights and obligations. Originally, marriage was a religious construct but over the centuries and because of the legal and financial elements to marriage, it has taken on legal status. Traditionally, marriage has been between a man and a woman but in recent decades, an increasing number of countries are accepting the idea of gay marriage. While still controversial, the trend is growing.
nuclear family and extended family A nuclear family is composed of a married couple and their unmarried children living together. Such a family is seen more often in western, developed countries where living on one’s own with one’s own family is more economically and socially possible. An extended family is one where relatives, such as grandparents, aunts or cousins, live in the same home as a nuclear family. Such families are typical in areas where relationships with older or extended members of a family are more inclusive and/or where it is economically not possible for a sole nuclear setting.
patrilineal and matrilineal A patrilineal descent refers to a kinship that follows the bloodline established by the father and his family. In the United States, the taking of the male name is connected to a patrilineal preference. A matrilineal descent refers to a kinship that follows the bloodline established by the mother and her family. Within Judaism, one is not considered a Jew if the mother was a goy or gentile. The mother denotes “Jewishness” in an individual.
bilateral A bilateral descent in a kinship system is when both sides of a person’s family is considered equally important. Countries like India, Australia and certain groups in western Africa and the Pacific Islands recognize the importance of both parents’ families.
patriarchy and matriarchy Patriarchy refers to a society in which men dominate the decisions made in a family. Most modern societies are considered patriarchal but that is not to say that women do not wield considerable influence in family decisions. Matriarchy refers to a society in which women dominate the decisions made in a family. It is said by modern sociologists that no true matriarchal societies exist but legend suggests that such societies like the Amazon and certain Celtic societies point to the dominance of women.
equalitarian An equalitarian family is one where the authority is equally shared between the husband and wife.
patrilocal and matrilocal Patrilocal refers to a social system where a married couple lives with or near the parents of the husband. While this and matrilocal are common in certain parts of the world, in the western, developed countries, it is not as common. In these countries, independence from the family to establish one’s own is more common and socially acceptable. Matrilocal refers to a social system where a married couple lives with or near the parents of the wife. In the aforementioned developed countries, where it does exist is based on cultural or economic considerations.
neolocal Neolocal refers to married couples who do not live near the parents of the husband nor the wife. As mentioned earlier, this is common in the western, developed countries and is a testimony to one’s independence, something highly valued in some of the aforementioned countries.
monogamy and polygamy Monogamy is a form of marriage in where one woman and one man are married only to one another. While aberrations have existed through world history, this is has been the general form that marriage has taken, particular among the non-royal or wealthy classes. Polygamy is a form of marriage in where one can have multiple partners simultaneously. Throughout history, this has tended to be the purview of the wealthy. In the United States, the Latter-day Saints practiced a form of polygamy but abolished it in the late 1800s. Unfortunately, despite frequent attempts by the LDS Church to distance from the practice, many people still stereotype the faith and associate it with polygamy.
polygyny and polyandry Polygyny is a form of polygamy in which the husband can have several wives at the same time. Traditional and early societies often practiced polygyny within the upper classes or ruling classes. Polyandry is a form of polygamy in which the woman can have several husbands at the same time. This practice is rare but is seen in the Himalayan area of South Asia and sporadically, it is seen in Oceania and among the Amerindians of North America.
exogamy Exogamy requires that people select mates outside of certain groups. This is a controversial subject throughout history and examples include marrying outside of one’s religious group or ethnic group.
incest Incest is the forbiddance of sexual relationships between relatives. Some have considered it the one universal taboo.
endogamy and homogamy Endogamy refers to the restriction of mate selection to people within a particular group. Within various immigrant groups, pressure exists between parents and children who want to marry or date outside of their ethnic group. Homogamy refers to mate selection between people of a similar group.
heterogamy Heterogamy refers to marriage between people that differ, most commonly on the basis of ethnicity, age or gender.
socioemotional maintenance Socioemotional maintenance refers to a condition of acceptance and support. Typically, people find this within the family structure but also amongst friends.
divorce rate Put simply, divorce rate is the rate of divorce within a particular society. In the United States, as of 2012, there are 4.95 divorces per 1,000 married couples. It ranks highest in the world. In the United States, the highest rates are seen in people between the ages 18 and 29. Rounding out the top five are Russia (3.36), the UK (3.08), Denmark (2.81) and New Zealand (2.63).
marriage rate As the name would suggest, marriage rate is the rate in which couples in a particular society marry. If there is any consolation to be gained from being ranked first in the divorce rate, it is that the U.S. also ranks first in the marriage rate (9.8 per 1,000 people/year). Rounding out the top five are Russia (8.9), the Czech Republic (8.4), Romania (8.3) and Portugal (7.3).
blended family A blended family is one where there are children from a previous marriage of one or both spouses.
adolescence Adolescence is defined as people between the ages of 13 and 19 and is generally identified as a transitional period between childhood and adulthood. However, such changes and transitions can happen sooner or later, dependent upon the individual. Adolescence, like childhood, is a definition that has not always referred to the same thing throughout the years. In early U.S. history, there was not much distinction between teens and adults, as teens were expected to act, work and carry themselves as adults. Over the last century, psychologists have determined that additional nurturing and forming is required during this stage.
dual-employed marriages Dual-employed marriages refer to couples who both have their own career and work full-time. These type of marriages can be strained due to the lack of time they have together and their absence in the raising of their children. Children who come home from school where both parents work outside the home are referred to as latchkey kids. Certain studies have suggested that latchkey kids have a greater likelihood to engage in behavior not desirable by the parents because of the lack of guidance however, these studies are not universally accepted.
cohabitation Cohabitation refer to couples who live together without being married. Different societies view this practice in different ways. In the United States, while some segments of the population frown on the practice, it is generally accepted.
boomerang kids Boomerang kids are those who, once leaving the home for college or work, return to live with their parents because of financial or personal issues.
formal schooling Formal schooling refers to the exposure to and (hopefully) the learning of a set curriculum based on cultural standards and values. Functionalists see school as an extension of the socialization process while the Conflict advocates (Marxists) see it as the reinforcement of class distinctions, pushing children to accept their role in society.
open classroomcooperative learning An open classroom is a student-centered format where the students, at mixed levels, are working with one another as several teachers monitor and mentor. The work is small-group and designed to be optimal with younger children. Cooperative learning emphasizes classes that are based on small group work with success dependent upon interactionism and cooperation within the group. It is thought that students buy into this type of program more completely because they have more control of the direction, pace and detail of the course.
integrative curriculum Integrative curriculum is a method of learning where students do not learn subjects in isolation but rather see each lesson in the context of other disciplines. Social philosopher Neil Postman suggested that all subjects should be taught historically. This is done in order to blend the different subjects and prevent the student inclination to discount one as “irrelevant” by showing them how they connect with what is seen as “relevant.”
voucher system The voucher system refers to government funding for people to attend non-traditional or private schools, as opposed to traditional public schools. As public education comes under fire for various reasons, the call for the voucher system has increased over the last decade. Opponents to the voucher system feel that it provides unfair competition and could, ultimately, damage the future of public schools.
charter schools Charter schools are public schools that are operated like private ones by public school teachers and administrators. While charter schools must adhere to state and national standards and requirements, they have more flexibility in procedures and funding, often using corporate funding to offset costs. They are typically not associated with established public school districts.
magnet schools Magnet schools are public schools that focus on a particular discipline. Such schools place emphasis on the arts, engineering and medicine, among other disciplines. Magnet schools are generally a part of established public school districts.
for-profit schools For-profit schools are ones that are operated by and similar to private businesses. These schools also receive government funds. These type of schools have emerged, particularly, in inner-cities where the public sector has failed to improve grades, standards and/or conditions.
manifest and latent functions American sociologist Robert Merton suggested that there were two types of functionalism – manifest and latent. Manifest functions refer to intended and recognized consequences of an aspect of society. A manifest function of school is to teach history and math, among other subjects. A manifest function of church is to reaffirm the faith associated with a particular religion. Latent functions represent unintended and unrecognized consequences of an aspect of society. A latent function of school includes the development of close friendships.
tracking Tracking is an educational method of placing students in programs according to their academic ability levels. This is in lieu of the placement of students on the basis of age. Opponents of tracking says it pigeon-holes students and does not allow them to move beyond their abilities.
meritocracy Meritocracy refers to a society where social status is based on ability and achievement. The first societies to embrace this idea did so through government service. The Chinese were the first society to appoint people to government service based on their talents and skills.
competition Competition is a key component to American success and energies. It is a system where rewards are based on relative performance. Competition is seen in nearly every aspect of American society – from sports to business to education. Some see it as a sum positive as it spurs Americans to do their very best while others feel competition ultimately degrades the endeavor and causes conflict.
educational equality Educational equality is a condition where schooling creates the same results for lower class/minority students as it does for other students. There is a great deal of argument over this concept. Some suggest that the pursuit of educational equality is an impossible goal because there is no student equality. One cannot achieve equality of educational results without inflating the bottom students or deflating the upper students. Others argue that there is an ingrained stereotype or prejudice that teachers have in favor of the upper class students, compared to lower class students. This prejudice must be countered and education equality can do that.
cognitive ability Cognitive ability refers to an ability to think abstractly. Psychologist Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development list abstract thinking as a part of the fourth and final stage he termed formal operational thinking. According to Piaget, while it is the final stage of cognitive ability, not everyone reaches this level.
cultural bias Cultural bias is the unfair measurement of one’s cognitive abilities based on social class. The following question was pointed out as having a cultural bias in favor of upper class students by educational psychologists Daniel and Rayna Levine. A symphony is to a composer as a book is to what? a. paper b. a musician c. a sculptor d. a man e. an author
school desegregation In 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court heard the case of Plessy v. Ferguson and as a part of its decision, the justices allowed for facilities that were “separate but equal.” This included schools. However, school desegregation, the preventing of separate schools based on race, began in the late 1950s with the case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954). However, because school districts are formed based on residence, students in a predominantly black neighborhood will go to a school that is also predominantly black. This unofficial segregation is of a concern in educational and political circles today.
multicultural education Multicultural education is a curriculum that emphasizes differences among gender, ethnicity and race. Proponents claim that the approach teaches students to be more aware and understanding of differences and hopefully, such an approach will lessen the horrible impact of racism and other prejudice. Opponents say that the approach separates people by highlighting differences and not teaching those things that bind us together. It claims that it creates the very problems it seeks to address.
compensatory education Compensatory education refers to specific curricular programs designed to overcome a past deficiency. Programs like Head Start was designed to provide pre-school education traditionally enjoyed by the rich to students of a lower-economic status.
hidden curriculum Hidden curriculum is the informal and unofficial aspects of culture that children pick up at school. You learned earlier that it is the manifest functions of schools to teach and for students to gain knowledge. However, hidden curriculum refers to the latent functions where students learn to obey authority figures, respond appropriately to rewards and punishments and cooperation with fellow students and adults.
self-fulfilling prophecy Self-fulfilling prophesy is a prediction that creates results that prove the prediction true.
economic and political institution An economic institution is one that determines how goods and services are produced and distributed. A political institution is one that determines how power is obtained and exercised.
power, coercion and authority Power refers to the ability to control the behavior of others. While this is typically characterized in a negative way, there are plenty of examples of people who have used power positively. People with power can include the likes of César Chávez, Mother Theresa as well as someone like Adolf Hitler. Coercion is control through force. Max Weber suggested that a government that bases its power in coercion is unstable and will, ultimately, create an uprising by the people. Authority is the power accepted as legitimate by those subject to the authority. Most people pay taxes because they recognize a government’s right to collect taxes from the people.
charismatic, traditional and rational-legal authority Charismatic authority, as seen within people like President Bill Clinton, Indian nationalist Mahatma Gandhi or Native American activist Russell Means, is an authority that emerges from the personality of an individual. Traditional authority, as seen in the queen of England, is a form of authority in which the legitimacy is rooted in custom. Rational-legal authority, as seen with President Barack Obama or Senator John McCain, is a form of authority in which the power of government officials is based on the offices they hold. Very few people would question the authority of either man.
representative democracy Representative democracy is a form of government that is based on the consent of the public. The concepts of representative democracy come from ancient examples as well as the theories of Enlightenment thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
