"Minorities in Europe” Session 8: Russian minority in abroad. The case of the Baltic States

1. "Minorities in Europe”Session 8: Russian minority in abroad. The case of the Baltic States Denis Gruber Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State University DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

2. Classical American Sociology of migration • Assimilation = Integration • a one-side process which has to be fulfilled by migrants / ethnic minorities (cf. Sellin 1938, Park/Burgess 1921) • the goal is full assimilation of migrants and their descendants • cultural adaptation of migrants to the culture of the majority society • 5 stages of „race relation cycle“ (Robert E. Park / Ernest W. Burgess 1921) • migration into a new territory • after a peaceful phase of becomming acquainted a competition for short ressources arise • results in a conflict • segregation and separation of the ethnic group and increased interethnic contacts and intermingling („melting pot“) • full assimilation adisbandment of ethnic group(s)

3. Newer American Sociology of migration • Shmuel N. Eisenstadt (1954): 3 stages of assimilation of Jews in Israel • migration and absorption of minorities (absolute adaptation of the members of diaspora) • minorities have to orientate by re-sozialisation to the norms of the majority society and old (traditional) norms do not have further relevance • absorption is more an exception than a rule what results in stratification of the minority societies

4. Newer American Sociology of migration Gordon (1964): assimilation as a 7th stage process, but not all stages have to be passed by immigrants because there is not a logical order of stages • main focus on passing a „structural assimilation“ • Integration of minorities depends on their capabilities to incorporate in institutions of the majority society • assimilation is often not succesful because it stops at the behavioral level • „melting pot“- conzept has failed because segregation and isolation by US American society hinder one-sided expectations of assimilation • integration does not only depend on the will of minorities or migrants, but also by the will of the majority society and nation-state integration policy to eleminate ethnic discrimination and to guarantee the same law for all citizens

5. Newer American Sociology of migration • in the following years more and more a view was constructed that integration is not only a singular task of migrants or minorialso an active participation of the members of the majority society • Ronald Taft (1957): „Stage model of assimilation“ contradicts the formal adaptation of only one unit to the other one and emphasizes the possibility of mutual adaptation, which takes place by interactions and parallel existence of the groups • assimilative social integration depends on contextual conditions of the host state

6. Hartmut Esser - Assimilation • „Assimilation“ is not a political concept of ethnic or cultural adaptation • „‚adoptation of different groups in certain characteristis“ as language ability and filling of jobs • assimilation does not mean absolute equality of actors because also the domestic population is not homogenous • important is the fact that there are no systematic differences in the distribution of certain characteristics and ressources fordifferent groups in one society • assimilation means dissolution of systematic differences between groups and categories, but not the equality of individuals in every department • there can be social inequalities but not between ethnic groups! • domestic and minority population participate equally at laws and ressources of a society (Esser 2001:21 f.)

7. Annett Treibel (1999 • „Assimilation“ is not the state or result of adaptation but a process of gradual adaptation • for Heckmann (1992) the will for acculturation of migrants is a necessary but not sufficient condition for integration  results often in accomodation refers to a gradual form of assimilation • learning and adaptation processes of persons which by a change of location have to appropriate basic means and rules of communication and activity of the new society and knowledge of institutions and belief systems to be able for interaction and working (Heckmann 1992: 168) • Aus dieser Definition geht hervor, dass sich Migranten und ethnische Minderheiten einen bestimmten Fundus von Wissensbeständen und Qualifikationen aneignen, der für die Kommunikation in der Mehrheitsgesellschaft notwendig ist, allerdings brauchen sich hierdurch nicht notwendigerweise die Denkweisen, Werte, Vorlieben und Überzeugungen der Migranten und Minderheitenakteure zu verändern.

8. Assimilation or Integration • Asimilaton: adaption of language, cultural traditions, norms, behavior patterns of the host society • in contradiction to cultural and ethnic pluralis • Integration: processes by which migrants or minorities will be accepted members of the host society • mutual process which have to be fulfilled by minorities and majority • requires efforts and good will

9. Integration • Interactions by actors and actor‘s interaction in the social system • Integration depens on the willingness of migrants and/or ethnic minorities as well as orientations and problem solutions of the titular society • Integration requires the disappearing of ethnic discrimination and the acceptance of the same laws for ethnic majorities as well as minorities (Gordon, 1964:252)

10. Integration is„(…) a process of political and social ‚inclusion of the excluded‘, and was defined in an operational way as a process of removing barriers which prevented non-Estonians from participating in the local social and political life, from being competitive in the labour market, and from taking advantage of the opportunities of the Estonian educational system.“ (Lauristin/Heidmets 2002b: 324)

11. noticeable in thisview on integrationisthatthepropagateapproachofthe Estonian governmentdoes not distinguish between „Integration“ and „Inclusion“ • Nodifference between „systemic Integration“ and „social integration“ ofmigrantsand/or membersof ethnic groups • Common understandingof „integration“ and „inclusion“ meansthatthe individual integrationprocess in the „Lebenswelt“ issimilarilytotheinclusion in the Estonian titularsociety (specialrights, occupyingofcertainpositions, appropriationofimportantsocietalressources) • thereforeitisimportanttodistinguish between thecomplexprocessesofsystemicand social integrationofthe Russian Minority in Estonia

12. use of the integrationapproach of German scholar Hartmut Esser (1999, 2001) • differs between social andsystemicintegration • allowstofocus on processesofinclusionandexclusionof ethnic minorities • on the onehand, social and systemicintegrationcanbedistinguishedassingleunits, but otherwisesystemicintegrationispursuedbyactors‘ interaction • In thisway, thesociologicaldifferentiationof „social systemtheory“ and „actorstheory“ havetobeseenas an interplay, becauseactorsareabletoconsolidateandchange social systems

13. Systemic Integration • takesplaceindependently (anonymiously) fromthemotivesandrelationshipsof individual actors • referstotheintegration in a social systemlikeintegration in theworld-market, nation-state, international concerns, corporativeactors or supra-national entitieslikethe EU • referstoparticularmechanismsofthemarket, institutioanllawsofthenation-stateandparticularmediaresources (not massmedia, but money)

14. Social Integration • focuses on motives, orientations, andpurposesof individual actors, • referstothe „embeddingprocess“ of individual actors in a social system • isassociatedwiththegrantoflaws, learningofthetitularpopulation‘slanguage, embedding in theeducationsystemandthe national employmentmarket, interethnic friendshipsandidentificationwiththenation-state • mythesis: succesful „social integration“ of ethnic minoritiescan not onlybeevaluated by theirembedding in the „Lebenswelt“ but also by theirinclusion in the sub-systemsofthe social systemofthetitularsocietyandpossibilitiestocontrolimportantresources in stateandsociety

15. Spheres of Social Integration • titular society • ethnic community in the titular society (Russian group in Estonia) • Society of origin (kinship, ethnic networks, transnatonalism, translocalism)

16. Four types of social integration • plural integration: integration in thetitularsocietyas well as in the ethnic community andthesocietyoforigin • segmentation / segregation: integration in an „ethnic milieu“ (Chinese in New York, Turkeys in Berlin)  establishmentof „We-Groups“ • marginalisation: Park (1928, „marginal man“): disintegration in thetitularsocietyas well as in thesocietyoforigin/ethnic community  processesofself-exclusion, nolanguageassimilation, marginal interactionsandidentificationwiththeown ethnic community as well asmembersofthetitularsociety • assimilation: dominant model ofintegration in European societies

17. Dimensions of social integration Placement • societalpositionofmigrantsand/or ethnic minorities in a social system: e.g. labourmarketpositions • importantforpursuingressources • bounded tocertainlaws, like citizenship, electionlaws Culturation • process of adoptation • necessary knowledge andqualificationsforthe interaction in thetitularsociety, likelanguage • oftenresults in „acculturation“: semi or partial culturation

18. Acculturation • exchange of cultural features that results when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first hand contact • original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct (cf. Kottak 2007) • anthropologists Redfield, Linton and Herskovits (1936, p. 149) developed the oft quoted definition: "Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups".

19. Dimensions of social integration Interactions • helpful for minority actors to „come in contact“ with the members of the titular society Identification • emotional/identificative orientation of actors with the titular society as well as the society of origin

20. Ethnic RussianMinority in Estonia • have an ethnic Russian migration background (even descendants of migrations; migrants of the 2nd or 3rd generation) • have citizenship of Estonia, Russia or are stateless • are using the Russian language in everyday life as primary language

21. The question of citizenship • membersofthe Russian grouphavebeendivided in two sub-groups: • Thosewhohavebeenalreadylived in the First Estonian Republic f(1918-1940) and theirdescendants) • thosewhowerecommingto ESSR aslabourforce in thecourseoftheindustrialisationprocess • last grouphasbeenclassified by conservative Estonian Politiciansas a threatfortheachieved national souveranityandwherecalledfromnow on „Aliens“

22. Alien • Term „Alien „(Estonian „muulane“) isusedfor a „personofanothernationalitaty („Alien Law” by July 1992) • “An alien is a person who is not an Estonian citizen and aliens staying in Estonia are guaranteed rights and freedoms equal to those of Estonian citizens unless the constitution, this Act, other Acts or international agreements of Estonia provide otherwise. Aliens are guaranteed the rights and freedoms arising from the generally recognised rules of international law and international custom. Aliens staying in Estonia are required to observe the constitutional order and legislation of Estonia.”

23. Statelessness • main problem of exclusive citizenship regulations refers to the large number of non-citizens in Estonia • marker for lacking placement in the political system of Estonia (cf. Barrington 1995, Poleshchuk 2004, Semjonova 2001), emphasized also by UNHCR (2007a) und Amnesty International (2006) • although the number of stateless has decreased from ca. 400,000 in 1991 to 124,681 in 2007, a rising stagnition for citizenship by naturalization is obvious (cf. EMFA 2005) • more than the half of applicants are minors of which more than one third passed the language and citizenship test (ibid.) • on the average more than 60 per cent of apllicants pass the waystage user-Test (cf. Tomusk 2002: 46) • relatively low success rate has to be traced back to the fact that individual efforts and test-specific requirements have to be fulfilled to get Estonian citizenship • otherwise one has to give attention to the fact that ca. 275,000 ethnic Russians who have been stateless did not decide for Estonian but for Russian citizenship

24. Connection between citizenship and ressources • What are the reasons that ethnic Russians decide for Estonian citizenship? • What are the reasons that ethnic Russians decide for Russian citizenship? • What are the reasons that ethnic Russians in Estonia decide to stay stateless?

25. Reasons for application for Estonian citizenship and its functions • by Estonian citizenship comprehensive political rights (e.g. right to vote) and possible upward moility in high political and administrative positions can be reached • those ethnic Russians without Estonian citizenship are missing automatically lower political rights of participation • non-citizens of Estonia do not have the possibility to practice active and passive electoral rights by the election of the Estonian national assembly • they also do not have the passive electoral right in local elections • Non-Estonians do not can candidate for political positions and administrative positions as well as do not can work in leading positions of state enterprises (cf. EP 2000) • only Estonian citizens can be member of Estonian political parties what complicate the representation of interest of non-citizens (cf. Elsuwege 2004: 26)

26. Reasons for application for Estonian citizenship and its functions • ethnic Russians are conscious about their decission to apply for Estonian citizenship or not • will to become an Estonian and will for placement („political inclusion“) depends on very rational motives and criteria • to be a full member of the Estonian society • to have better chances on the Estonian and EU labour market • to give children a better future and career chances • to be EU-citizen and not be exluded from taking part in elections (elections of the European Parliament) • for younger stateless persons a trend is obvious that a decission „pro Estonia“ offers opportunities • possibilities to travel in EU without barriers and to study and work there

27. Reasons for application for Russian citizenship and its functions • three main reasons: • Measures of Russia‘s diaspora policy • existence of social networks • appropriation of economic advantages • Appropriation of pension entitlements • Economy of Citizenship

28. Russia‘s diaspora policy • particularities in the bilateral relations between Russia and Estonia lies in the fact that both have a different general view on history (cf. Budryte 2005, in 2006, Wehner 2006) • Baltic States show for „Putin’s Russia“ „the biggest tragedy of the 20th century“ (Putin quotes in Wehner 2006), because the internal erosion of the Soviet state strted with the independence attempts of the Baltic states • quintessential point of the historical quarrel refers to the fact that Putin does not recognise the occupation of the Baltic states by Stalin as a result of the confidential additional protocol of the Molotow-Ribbentrop- pact. • „Putin’s Russia“ looks at the annexation of the Baltic States by the Soviet army as a voluntary act to join the Soviet Union • Estonia emphasizes mass deportations, suppression and terror during the Soviet occupation (cf. Wehner 2006). • to accept the full independence of the Baltic states (cf. Kolstø 1995) • Russia protests regularly against citizenship regulations concerning “its” minority and against the restrictive language policy, loss of importance of Russian language and regulations concerning electoral laws (cf. Dorodnova 2000) • highlighting the fact of „ethnic discrimination“ (cf. Hughes 2005) and continuing “Russiaphobie" (cf. Long 2003)

29. Russia‘s diaspora policy • some authors (Dittmer 2003, Kolstø 1995) find out that the loyalty of ethnic Russians with the members of the Estonian titular society is rather low, because Estonia like Latvia did not grant citizenship automatically after independence • On the other hand, Russia granted already in 1991 every ethnic Russian in the successor states of the SU the possibility "automatically" to accept the Russian citizenship (cf. Mironov/Mironov 2003)  but since 2001 "automatic“ citizenship was not furthermore granted • nevertheless, since 2003 Russia recognised that demographic changes (natural ageing and sinking birth rates) require to find new solutions for ethnic Russians abroad (Russian Diaspora in the successor states of the SU) (cf. NOVOSTI 2006c) • By specific recruitment of members of the Diaspora in the former Soviet republics the „demographic problem” beyond the metropolises Moscow and St. Petersburg shall be solved (cf. Pörzgen 2007) • as a result the conditions of entry and “coming home to Russia” as well as citizenship-specific regulations (restrictions) were eased for Russian "compatriots“ (cf. NOVOSTI 2006d)

30. Russia‘s diaspora policy Putin: • „We know about the fact that the overwhelming majority of Russians and other ethnic groups from the Russian federation do not live abroad because they it wish […] We will do everything to help those who want to come back to their motherland […] We must to deal with realities which determine the life. Above all, it is about the return of our compatriots in such territories of today's Russia which urgently need manpower (…) The level of moving allowance depends on the need of manpower in the regions. Where the need is especially big, the move money will be more.“ (Putin quotes in Pörzgen 2007) • In October 2006, the coordination gremium of the Russian compatriots was founded at the world congress of compatriots in St. Petersburg (cf. NOVOSTI 2007a) • President Putin asked 600 delegates from nearly 80 countries for vigorous support of his voluntary remigration programme (cf. RIAN 2007a) • Only in 2007, 4,6 milliard roubles from the household of the federation were provided to finance moving allowance and to support job searches and school choice

31. Russia‘s diaspora policy • in RDP is strong emphasis on the identity concept • Kortunow (1997:15) speaks about a „selective engagement“, which gives returns to a construction of an Ethnic-Russian, more precise Rossianian identity, and uses for this symbolic acts, e.g. the visit of a delegation of Duma members after the quarrel about the dismantling of the Soviet memorial in Tallinn in April, 2007 • this conflict about the demolition of the soldier's monument makes in all sharpness clear that Russia anytime is able to mobilize above all younger ethnic Russians in the „close foreign countries“ (Savoskul 2001) • “selectice engagment” means a “policy of pinpricks”: „To be 'selective' means to use different rules in different situations, to abstain from every universal approach, to renounce general rules” (Kortunov 1997) • proponents of “selective engagement” assume that Russia does not have enough resources to rebuild the Russian or previous Soviet empire or to build up a security system on the territory of the former Soviet Union, but… • …on the other hand, Russia can not afford a isolationistic policy, that is why “selective engagement” reffering to neighbouring states means first of all to show several regional and subregional arrangements with different degrees of Russian participation“ (Kortunow 1997:15)

32. Russia‘s diaspora policy • not only by symbolic acts, also by financial support Russia is supporting “its” diaspora • in 2007 approx. 10 million Euro were given abroad to support the organisation of school holidays, the care of veterans, supply of literature and cultural activities (cf. RIAN 2006a, RIAN 2006b), material and ideological support of the Russian language and education of teachers (cf. Simonow 2004) • especially the financial engagement for the Russian language should be a factor to attract ethnic Russians in the „near abroad“ to decide for Russian citizenship and to (re)-migrate to Russia • „Many Russians in Estonia still think that they are a part of this big Russian community and also a part of this big culture as well as the big Russian history, especially if they have Russian citizenship. I also think that this a part of our national problems here in Estonia. Of course, a lot of Russians have problems to speak and or to communicate in Estonian and use their mother tongue in everyday life (…) It is also quite difficult for older people to learn Estonian language. Many of them already live in Estonia their whole life and during the Soviet time they did not need to learn the Estonian language, because they always used Russian. I think that the language is the basic reason, why they decide for Russian citizenship.“ (Interview 27)

33. reasons that ethnic Russians in Estonia decide to stay stateless • self-exclusion of ethnic Russians not to become full members of Estonia • personal deprivation  social isolation of certain individuals or groups as a result of dicontent, seclusion, shortages and services • negative experiences  personal frustration • difficult social situation • desinterest in politics • weak identification with Estonia • disenchantment with politics • critic about language test and citizenship procedures • appropriation of state welfare support

34. "Minorities in Europe”Session 9: People with Migration Background in Germany Denis Gruber Faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State University DAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

35. German nationality law • German citizenship is based primarily on the principle of Jus sanguinis • one usually acquires German citizenship if a parent is a German citizen, irrespective of place of birth • significant reform to the nationality law was passed by the Bundestag in 1999, and came into force on 1 January 2000 • new law makes it somewhat easier for foreigners resident in Germany on a long-term basis, and especially their German-born children to acquire German citizenship

36. German nationality law Birth in Germany • Children born on or after 1 January 2000 to non-German parents acquire German citizenship at birth if at least one parent: • has a permanent residence permit (and has had this status for at least 3 years) and • has been residing in Germany for at least 8 years • Such children will be required to apply successfully to retain German citizenship by the age of 23 • they do not hold any foreign citizenship

37. German nationality law Descent from a German parent • People born to a parent who was a German citizen at the time of birth are usually German citizens; does not matter whether they were born in Germany or not • those born after January 1, 1975 are Germans if the mother or father is a German citizen • Those born before January 1, 1975 could normally only claim German citizenship from the father and not the mother • Exceptions included cases where the parents were unmarried (in which case German mothers could pass on citizenship) or where the German mother applied for the child to be registered as German on or before 31 December 1977 • those born outside Germany to a German parent who was also born outside Germany after 1999 will need to be registered as German citizens within 12 months of birth • Persons who are Germans on the basis of descent from a German parent do not have to apply to retain German citizenship by age 23

38. German nationality law Naturalisation as a German citizen • naturalisation by those with permanent residence who have lived in Germany for 8 years • additional requirements include an adequate command of the German language and an ability to be self-supporting without recourse to welfare • Exceptions to the normal residence requirements include: • a spouse of a German citizen may be naturalised after 3 years residence in Germany. The marriage must have persisted for at least 2 years • persons who have completed an integration course may have the residence requirement reduced to 7 years • refugees and stateless persons may be able to apply after 6 years residence • former German citizens

39. German nationality law Victims of Nazi persecution • people who lost German citizenship under the Nazi regime (mainly German Jews) may be eligible for naturalisation without requiring residence in Germany or renunciation of their existing citizenship • Children and grandchildren of such persons may also be eligible for German citizenship German-born children • children who were born in Germany in 1990 or later, and would have been German, were entitled to be naturalised as German citizens • child was required to apply for retention of German citizenship by age 23 and normally show that no other foreign citizenship was held at that time

40. German nationality law Loss of German citizenship • A German child adopted by foreign parents, where the child automatically acquires the nationality of the adoptive parents under the law of the adoptive parents' country • German citizen who voluntarily serves in a foreign army (over and above compulsory military service) from 1 January 2000 may lose German citizenship unless permission is obtained from the German government • Persons acquiring German citizenship on the basis of birth in Germany (without a German parent) lose German citizenship automatically at age 23 if they have not successfully applied to retain German citizenship • when a German citizen voluntarily acquires the citizenship of another country • two exceptions: • When the German citizen acquires a nationality from within the European Union, Switzerland, or another country with which Germany has a corresponding treaty • When permission to obtain a foreign citizenship has been applied for and granted in advance of foreign naturalisation

41. German nationality law Dual citizenship • can only be held in limited circumstances: • where a child born to German parents acquires another citizenship at birth (e.g. based on place of birth, or descent from one parent) • where a German citizen acquires a foreign nationality with the permission of the German government • where a naturalized German citizen, or a child born to non-German parents in Germany, obtains permission to keep their foreign nationality

42. 4. Historical Development of Migration (cont‘d) • Typs of ethnic minorities: • ethnic Germans • ethnic German immigrantsfrom Balkan and former SU • labourmigrants • 2006: 60% of foreignersarelabourmigrants • 1980: 75% • Refugees • 490.000 recognizedrefugees • 200.000 open applications for asylum • Illegale Immigrants • withoutpermits • 150,000 – 1,000,000

43. 4 stages of German Migration History after WW II: • Stage of Recruiting (1955-73): • Agreements with Mediteranian Countries • foreign labour force instead of integration of women in labour market • (as in GDR) • stop of immigration from GDR • Rotationsprinzip • Stage of consolidation (1973-80) • recruitment stop 1973 until 2000 • Familiennachzug • first steps of integration: Department for Integration • In 1980s Asylum seeking • defensive measures (1981-98) • limitation of asylum seekers • silent metamorphose of guest workers to immigrants • stage of acceptance (1998-) • 1.1.2000: liberal, open citizenship law • Greencard for IT-Specialists • Federal Department for Foreigners, Migrants and Refugees

44. a) Anwerbeverträge (Vgl. Treibel, 1999: 56) • Reports

45. Recruitment of Guest Workers • starts in the 1950s til the mid 1970s • In 1955 first recruitment contract “Anwerbevertrag” with Italy • entrepreneurial, wage-political and job market-political considerations were decisive, although unemployment in 1955 was with 1.1 million or 7% relatively high (cf. Treibel, 1999:55) • Besides, the employment of foreigners should only be a temporarily appearance  political ideology of “Guest worker" – employment • By the recruiting principle of rotation "young", "fresh" foreign workers should be available for the West-German economy • „The recruiting nation-states, enterprises and recruited workers assumed themselves that they remain certain time in the recruiting country to save money for independent existence or long-term acquisitions and sooner or later to return to their country of origin“ (ibid55)

46. Recruitment of Guest Workers • There was a need for unqualified manpower for dirty and or badly paid work • recruited workers were employed in those branches of the secondary sector which became more and more unattractive for local employees and female employees, thus, e.g., in the mining, in constructions, metal industry, textile industry • furthermore, a need for the tertiary sector: health service and gastronomy • "foreign workers" were accommodated often in mass accommodations, camps and hostels • „Guest workers are therefore functional for the structural change of the German labour system, because they allowed the rise of the local manpower.“ (Treibel, 1999:56)

47. Recruitment of Guest Workers • in 1966/67 rise of unemployment rate in Western Germany • in 1973 stop of labour force recruitment and rotation principle • A new phase of the West German foreigners policy: consolidation • Until the end of the 1970s numerous restriction and adaptation measures took place: (1974: reference regulation, 1975: Child benefit regulation; immigration stop) • aim which was pursued was not furthermore to “replace” “old" foreign manpower by new ones and final remigration of labourforce in their homelands • number of the foreign employees decreased: 2.6 million in 1973 (year of the highest level) to 1.6 million in 1984

48. Recruitment of Guest Workers • In the 1970s also the process of migration of foreign employees’ families has started (family reunification) • „Longer duration of stay, better living conditions and unrestricted possibilities of entry and leaving of the border, and this is especially important, the return possibility, led to the fact that foreign workers began to reunite their families.“ (Korte/Schmidt, 1983:17) • Anwerbestopp of 1973 had caused the opposite • „When the foreigners had understood that from now on a return was correctable definitively, not more like during former years by a renewed recruitment, a part of them began to organize the reunification of the family. Especially strongly this was observed for Turks. While in Greece, Spain and Portugal consolidated their economies, the economic and social situation in Turkey became from year to year worse.“ (ibid. 19) • „Turks expected, stricter regulations for family reunification could follow, and, therefore, brought in their families to Germany

49. Migration from Turkey 1961-73 • German Turkish arrangement about the recruitment of manpower started on 30.10. 1961 • the Turkish military government intended „by a limited emigration to relieve the labour market, to bring in urgently required foreign currency. and to promote the economic modernisation of Turkey by know-how of the certified repatriates • from 1961 to 1973 German enterprises employed about 710,000 manpower from Turkey • rotation principle which limited the work permit to two years was also in interest for the Turkish government to control the migration flows and to use certified manpower in the country after remigration • under the pressure of the German economy the rotation principle was dropped already in 1962 formally and was stopped in 1964

50. Migration from Turkey 1973-93 • The second military putsch in 1980 in Turkey was a new turning point after 1973 • from now on migrants from Turkey came as regime opponents to Germany • in the 1980s the number of those immigrants was 125,000 people • another reason for the migration to Germany was the economic situation (e.g. rate of unemployment 18 percent) • „Besides, a return to the native country was irreversible – for Turkish migrants because of the non-membership in the EC – there was no freedom of movement. Therefore, the time for returning to Turkey was shifted. Because also the medical care as well as the school education and professional training in Germany were better the stay duration rose on and on.“ (ibid. see 11)