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Objectives

Status Epilepticus (SE): Diagnosis and Management Edward Sloan, MD, MPH Associate Professor Department of Emergency Medicine University of Illinois College of Medicine-Chicago Chicago, IL. Objectives. Definitions SE Subtle SE Refractory SE Diagnosis Clinical exam Diagnostic testing

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Objectives

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  1. Status Epilepticus (SE):Diagnosis and ManagementEdward Sloan, MD, MPHAssociate ProfessorDepartment of Emergency MedicineUniversity of Illinois College of Medicine-ChicagoChicago, IL

  2. Objectives • Definitions • SE • Subtle SE • Refractory SE • Diagnosis • Clinical exam • Diagnostic testing • EEG • Management

  3. Case A 37 year old male is brought to the emergency department by EMS because of a seizure at home. The patient had a generalized tonic-clonic seizure prior to going to bed. The seizure lasted for approximately ten minutes, followed by a period of unresponsiveness during EMS transport. The patient has a long history of post-traumatic seizures that are managed with phenytoin and phenobarbital. There has been neither recent illness nor recent head trauma. In the emergency department, the patient is still unresponsive.

  4. SE Questions • How is SE Defined? • What is Subtle SE? • How is Subtle SE Diagnosed? • How is SE Acutely Managed? • What is Refractory SE? • How is Refractory SE Managed?

  5. All are true statements about Status epilepticus (SE) except: a. It is defined by two seizures that occur without a lucid interval. b. By definition, all SE is associated with SE definitions include any seizure of duration > 10 minutes. d. The most common etiologies for SE include antiepileptic drug (AED) withdrawal and alcohol withdrawal. e. SE of longer duration is associated with a higher mortality.

  6. All are true statements about Stutus Epilepticus (SE) except: Answer: b. Although generalized convulsive SE(GCSE) is associated with tonic-clonic motor activity, other forms such as complex partial or absence SE can exist with this motor activity.

  7. All are true statements about subtle SE except: a. By definition, subtle SE is not associated with generalized tonic-clonic motor activity. b. Subtle SE requires EEG monitoring in order to be diagnosed clinically. c. In subtle SE, the EEG shows persistent ictal discharges. d. Because there is not generalized tonic-clonic motor activity, subtle SE has a lower mortality rate than does GCSE. e. Subtle SE occurs as a late finding of prolonged GCSE.

  8. All are true statements about subtle SE except: Answer: d. Because subtle SE is a late finding of prolonged GCSE, it carries a much higher mortality than GCSE, up to 50-65% in some studies.

  9. All are true statements regarding adult SE except: a. Fever can occur as a result of GCSE without the presence of a CNS infection as the fever source b. Lumbar puncture is required for all SE patients who have a fever. c. Lactic acidosis, leukocytosis, and hypercarbia can be in SE. d. Guidelines exist that describe the role of neuroimaging in seizures and SE e. The diagnosis of refractory SE is made when initial therapies fail.

  10. All are true statements regarding adult SE except: Answer: b. Although a lumbar puncture should be considered in all patients with SE and fever, in the awake patient without meaningful signs and a fever source, an LP may not be necessary.

  11. All are true statements regarding the use of EEG in SE except: a. Patients who remain comatose for > 30 minutes may be in subtle SE, requiring EEG monitoring. b. All patients requiring neuromuscular blockage require EEG monitoring. c. All patients requiring pentobarbital coma require EEG monitoring. d. EEG monitoring can only be done with a multiple lead EEG machine. e. When considering subtle SE, EEG monitoring should be performed emergently in the ED or ICU.

  12. All are true statements regarding the use of EEG in SE except: Answer: d. Two channel EEG monitoring can be performed using the modular monitoring systems present in most EDs.

  13. All are true statements regarding the initial management of SE except: a. Lorazepam has been shown to be superior to other benzodiazepines in SE management. b. Glucose determination, thiamine, and narcan are important initial therapies. c. Most treatment failures relate to inadequate dosing, not drug therapy choice. d. Phenytoins can be given in high doses (up to 30 mg/kg) in SE. e. Propofol or phenobarbital can be used to treat SE if benzodiazepines and phenytoins are not effective.

  14. All are true statements regarding the initial management of SE except: Answer: a. No simple benzodiazepine has been shown to be superior to another for the treatment of SE.

  15. If IV access is not available, the following are possible drugs and routes except? a. IM midazolam b. IM fosphenytoin c. IM phenobarbital d. PR diazepam e. PR diazepam gel

  16. All are true statements regarding the use of EEG in SE except: Answer: c. IM phenobarbital is not recommended because of soft tissue toxicity.

  17. SE Epidemiology • 50,000-150,000 Cases annually • 50 Cases per 100,000 population • Infants and elderly: greatest risk • Etiology: acute insult, chronic epilepsy, new onset DeLorenzo et al. Neurology 1996;46:1029. DeLorenzo et al. J Clin Neurophysiol 1995;12:316. DeLorenzo et al. Epilepsia 1992;33(Suppl 4):S15. Hauser. Neurology 1990;40(Suppl 2):9.

  18. SE Etiology Drug Toxicity Etiologies of SE in 154 patients Lowenstein and Alldredge. Neurology. 1993;43:483.

  19. SE Definition • Needed for epidemiologic and clinical trials • Historical definitions • Two seizures within 30 min, no a lucid interval • One seizure >30 min duration • More recent definitions more aggressive • Two seizures over any interval, no a lucid interval • One seizure of >10 min duration Gastault. Adv Neurol 1983;34:15. Lowenstein. N Eng J Med 1998;338:970-976 Treiman. Epilepsia 1993;34(Suppl 1):S2.

  20. SE Classification • Generalized convulsive SE: • Primarily and secondarily generalized • Overt: Generalized or major motor SE • Subtle: Myoclonic SE, “electical” SE • Nonconvulsive SE : Epileptic twilight state • Complex partial SE • Absence SE: Spike-wave stupor • Simple partial SE • No impairment of consciousness • Treiman. Epilepsia 1993;34(Suppl 1):S2. • Treiman, J Clin Neurophys 1995;12(4):343-362.

  21. SE Mechanism • Abnormal discharge by a few unstable neurons • Propagation by recruitment of normal neurons • Failure of normal inhibitory neurotransmitters (GABA) • Enhancement of excitatory neurotransmitters • (glutamate, aspartate, acetylcholine) • Interference with normal metabolic processes • glucose, 02 metabolism • Na+, Ca++, K+, Cl- ion shifts Fountain et al. J Clin Neurophysiology 1995;12:326.

  22. SE Duration and Mortality • SE >60 min: 10-fold greater 30-day mortality (32% vs 2.7%) • Worse outcome associated with • Longer duration SE • SE refractory to first-line therapy DeLorenzo et al. Epilepsia 1992;33(Suppl 4):S15. Lowenstein, and Alldredge. Neurology 1993;43:483.

  23. Subtle Status Epilepticus • Non-convulsive • Persistent ictal discharges • Electrical-mechanical dissociation (EMD) • Late finding after GCSE • Significant M & M Treiman, J Clin Neurophys. 1995;12(4):343-362.

  24. Subtle SE Incidence: Post-GCSE Frequency • Requires immediate EEG monitoring • VA SE study: 20% • Post - GCSE study: 14% DeLorenzo et al. Epilepsia 1998;39(8):833-840. Treiman et al. N Eng. J Med 1998;339:792-798.

  25. Subtle SE Outcome • Related to serious underlying pathology • Post-arrest hypoxic encephalopathy • Much higher mortality • VA SE study: 65% (vs 27%) • Post - CGSE study: 50% (vs 15%) DeLorenzo et al. Epilepsia 1998;39(8):833-840. Treiman et al. N Eng. J Med 1998;339:792-798.

  26. Subtle SE Diagnosis • AMS: unresponsiveness >20-30 minutes • Prolonged post-ictal state • Idiosyncratic behaviors • Agitation, speech arrest, confusion

  27. SE Management:General Principles • ABCs • Glucose determination • Thiamine / narcan • Antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy Lowenstein and Alldredge N Eng. J Med 1998;338:970-976.

  28. SE Management:Clinical Diagnosis • AMS • Todd’s paralysis • Hypertension: early BP rise, then hypotension • Fever: 49% have temperature >100.5 Fo Wijkicks and Hubmayr. Mayo ClinProc 1994;69:1044. Aminoff and Simon. Am J Med 1980;69:657.

  29. SE Clinical Evaluation:Laboratory Testing • Lactic acidosis: 30% will reach blood pH <7.00 • Hypercarbia: 84% will have increased pCO2 • Leukocytosis without bands • Neuron-specific enolase: highest in NCSE Aminoff and Simon. Am J Med 1980;69:657. DeGiorgio et al. Neurology 1999;52:746-749 Orringer et al. N Engl J Med 1977;297:796. Wijkicks and Hubmayr. Mayo Clin Proc 1994;69:1044.

  30. SE Clinical Evaluation:Lumbar Puncture • Three indications: • Immunocompromise • Meningeal signs • Persistent AMS • Not mandated for fever alone • CSF pleocytosis: 2%-18% have >5 PMNs ACEP. Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:987. Aminoff and Simon. Am J Med 1980;69:657.

  31. Recent trauma Cancer Anticoagulation AIDS New focal deficit Persistent AMS Fever Persistent headache history ACEP/AAN/AANS/ASN Neuroimaging Guidelines • Emergent neuroimaging recommended for: AAN = American Academy of Neurology; AANA= American Association of Neurological Surgeons; ACEP = American College of Emergency Physicians; ASN = American Society of Neuroradiology. ACEP, AAN, AANS, ASN. Ann Emerg Med 1996;27:114.

  32. SE Clinical Evaluation:Encephalography • Three emergent EEG indications: • Prolonged (>30 min) AMS • SE requiring neuromuscular paralysis • SE requiring pentobarbital coma or general anesthesia • Needs to be arranged emergently Kaplan. Epilepsia 1996;37:643. Privitera and Strawsburg. Emerg Med Clin N Am 1994;12:1089.

  33. SE Treatment Protocols:Epilepsy Foundation of America • Consensus expert opinion • Make the first drug work • Dose adequately • Benzodiazepines, phenytoins, barbituates • High dose phenytoin (30 mg / kg) Working Group on Status Epilepticus. JAMA 1993;270:854.

  34. SE Treatment Protocols:VA Cooperative Study • Four therapies, effectiveness at 20 min • EEG confirmation • Lorazepam, phenobarbital, diazepam & phenytoin, and phenytoin • Lorazepam best (65%) vs. phenytoin • Phenytoin alone sub-optimal (42%) • No difference with fosphenytoin? Treiman. N Eng J Med 1998;339:792-798

  35. Refractory SE:Incidence and Outcomes • SE not responsive to benzodiazepines and phenytoins. • Up to 6000 cases of refractory SE annually • Often indicative of progressive CNS disorder • Refractory SE relatively rare in ED • Overall mortality: 20% - 30% Bleck. Neurology Chron 1992;2:1. Kumar et al. Crit Care Med 1992;20:483. Jagoda et al. Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:1337. Labar et al. Neurology 1994;44:1400.

  36. Refractory SE Management • Outcome likely related to cause of SE • Many anecdotal reports; no controlled trials • Inhalation anesthetics less useful • Neuromuscular blockade not an anticonvulsant Bleck. Neurology Chron 1992;2:1. Kumar et al. Crit Care Med 1992;20:483. Jagoda et al. Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:1337. Labar et al. Neurology 1994;44:1400.

  37. Refractory SE Management • Pentobarbital • 5 mg/kg • load at 25 mg/min; 2.5 mg/kg/h maintenance dose • Propofol • 2 mg/kg load; 7 to 10 mg/kg/h maintenance • Midazolam • Bolus intravenous 200 microgram/kg • Infusion 0.75-11 microgram/kg/min Bleck. Neurology Chron 1992;2:1. Jagoda et al. Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:1337. Jagoda and Riggio. Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:1337. Kuisma and Roine. Epilepsia 1995;36:1241. Kumar et al. Crit Care Med 1992;20:483. Labar et al. Neurology 1994;44:1400. Parent JM, Lowenstein DH. Neurology 1994;44:1837 Shorvon. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993;56:125. Towne: J Emerg Med 1999;17:323 Van Ness. Epilepsia 1990;31:61.

  38. SE Management Options:Drug Therapies • IV Phenytoin: High dose (30 mg/kg) • IV Fosphenytoin: Rapid infusion in GCSE • IV Valproate: Absence complex partial SE • IV Lidocane: Anecdotal efficacy reports Allen et al. Epilepsia 1995;36(Suppl 4):90. Alehan et al. Neurology 1999;52:889-890. Browne et al. Neurology 1996;46(Suppl 1):S3. Eldon et al. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1993;53:212. Giroud et al. Drug Invest 1993;5:154. Kugler et al. Neurology 1996;46(Suppl)A176. Ramsey and DeToledo. Neurology 1996;46(Suppl 1):S17. Walker and Slovis. Acad Emerg Med 1997;4:918. Willert et al. Neurology 1999;52:889-890 Working Group on Status Epilepticus. JAMA 1993;270:854

  39. SE Management Options:Alternative Parenteral Routes • Midazolam IM: Best IM benzodiazepine • Fosphenytoin IM: Therapeutic by 30 minutes • Diastat PR: Rapid rectal absorption • Phenobarbital IM: Not recommended Dean et al. Epilepsia 1993;34(Suppl 6):111. Garnett et al. Neurology 1995;45(Suppl 4):A248. Parent JM, Lowenstein DH. Neurology 1994;44:1837 Ramsey and DeToledo. Neurology 1996;46(Suppl 1):S17. Towne: J Emerg Med 1999;17:323-328 Wilder et al. Arch Neurol 1996;53:764.

  40. SE Unique Populations:Toxic Ingestions • INH overdose: Pyridoxine (B6) 5g IVP x 6 • EtOH: Lorazepam (prevention also) • Phenytoins likely not effective in: • Cocaine • Cyclic antidepressants • Theophylline Orlowski et al. Ann Emerg Med 1988;17:73. Pauloucet et al. Ann Emerg Med 1988;17:135. Shannon. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:1161. Wason et al. JAMA 1981;246:1102. Brent et al. Arch Intern Med 1990;150:1751. Callaham and Kassel. Ann Emerg Med 1985;14:1. D’Onofrio et al. N Engl J Med 1999;340:915-919. Haverkos et al. Ann Pharmacother 1994;28:1347. Henderson et al. Anaesth Intensive Care 1992;20:56. Holland et al. Ann Emerg Med 1992;21:772. Koppel et al. Epilepsia 1996;37:875. Lin et al. Ann Emerg Med 1995;25:75.

  41. SE Unique Populations:Other Subgroups • TBI: Sz prophylaxis acutely • Stroke: Prophylaxis in high risk patients • Pregnancy: Mg++ prevents and treats • Psychogenic: Functional disorder, Rx Arboix et al. Neurology 1996;47:1429. Jagoda et al. Am J Emerg Med 1993;11:626. Jagoda et al. Am J Emerg Med 1995;13:31. Lewis, et al. Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:1114. Temkin et al. N Engl J Med 1990;323:497.

  42. Research Horizons:PHTSE Trial • Blinded, placebo-controlled, comparative trial • diazepam vs lorazepam vs placebo • 2 injections, then standard care • 65% seizing at time of ED arrival • 55% ICU admission rate • 20% HIV infection rate • Study not yet completed; awaiting final results Alldrede et al. Epilepsia 1995;36:(Suppl 4):44.

  43. Research HorizonsER Seizure Study Group • EMS Seizing rate: <5% • ER Seizing rate: <5% • Status epilepticus: <5% • Admission rate: 26% Gibbs et al. Ann Emerg Med 1998;32:S19-S20.

  44. SE Management:Case Management • Prolonged seizure (20 min) in ED • High dose benzodiazepines • Rapid infusion fosphenytoin • Prolonged AMS • Neuro consult • Stat CT in ED • EEG on arrival to ICU (< 90 minutes) • Work-up neg, awake within 12 hours

  45. SE Conclusions • SE is a common problem • SE causes significant M & M • Therapy can be optimized • Outcome can be enhanced • ED management critical

  46. SE Recommendations • Aggressively treat seizures • Dose adequately • Be aware of options • Suspect NCSE • Use EEG liberally

  47. SE Recommendations • Develop a SE protocol • Make all therapies available • Make EEG a “stat” test • Work with neurologists, NS • Optimize patient outcome

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