Values, Self & Knowledge: Lecture 3

1. The Supreme Moral Principle Values, Self & Knowledge: Lecture 3

2. The wonderful next 3 hours • Review of Benedict’s essay • 2 theories in applied ethics • Exam info • Essay outline rubric

3. Anthropology and the Abnormal • Benedict: “Morality…is a convenient term for socially approved habits” • What is her argument for that claim?

4. Anthropology and the Abnormal Different societies have different moral views Morality = Socially approved habits ??

5. What is Benedict’s argument? • If morality is merely socially-approved habits, then different societies would have different moral views. • Different societies have different moral views. • Therefore, morality is merely socially-approved habits. • If X, then Y. • Y. • Therefore, X.

6. What is Benedict’s argument? • If it is raining, then the ground would be wet. • The ground is wet. • Therefore, it is raining. • If X, then Y. • Y. • Therefore, X.

7. Best explanation “Meta-ethical relativism best explains moral diversity.” • Crime incident • Eye-witness: “Robber wore blue shirt” • You are wearing a blue shirt • Other considerations: DNA, appearance, other witnesses, etc

8. Best explanation “Meta-ethical relativism best explains moral diversity.” “Moral diversity is not the only feature of morality.” • Convergence, justified intervention, moral progress

9. Is it wrong to allow your friend to join you in the queue?

10. Applied ethical theory Applied Ethical Issues Applied Ethical Theory: The foundational moral principle • Joining queues • Abortion • Eating meat • The death penalty • Causal sex • …

11. Moral philosophy – the big picture What is ethics? Applied Ethical Theory Applied ethics Meta-Ethics

12. How do you tell what is right/wrong in a specific situation?

13. Why look for a single principle? • The foundational principle unifies all secondary principles • Removes arbitrariness in moral evaluation

14. The Golden Rule “Do unto others what you want others to do unto you.”

15. Testing a theory Theory Hypothesis/Prediction Theory-neutral Reflection Compare

16. Testing a theory The Golden Rule “Do unto others what you want others to do unto you.” Hypothesis/Prediction Theory-neutral Reflection Compare

17. Kick me I want others to kick me It is right for me to kick others “Do unto others what you want others to do unto you.” ???

18. Modified Golden Rule “Do unto others what you want others to do unto you.” “Do unto others what they want you to do unto them.”

19. Is the modified version better? What if others want you to: • Give them a gift that is bought with all your savings • Be their slave • Torture and kill them “Do unto others what they want you to do unto them.”

20. Taking stock • The Golden Rule makes morality hostage to people’s arbitrary wants “Do unto others what they want you to do unto them.”

21. Charity Feeling charitable, you decide to give some money to a charity. Assume you have to choose between Charity A and Charity Z. Both are equally in need of money. Your research tells you A is highly efficient in using the money for good causes. But Z is very inefficient. Which charity would you donate to?

22. Reflection Charity I will donate to A rather than Z. Principle: Maximise good consequences

23. 2 islands Two asteroids are flying towards the Earth. One is about to hit Big Island and kill its 10000 inhabitants. The other is about to hit Small Island and kill its 10 inhabitants. A group of scientists have the technology to destroy only one asteroid. Thus, there are only two options: to save those on Big Island or those on Small Island. You have to decide what to do in the situation.

24. Reflection 2 islands Save Big Island Principle: Maximise good consequences

25. Impartiality My interests do not count for more just because they are mine. Impartiality Our actions must take equally into account everyone’s interest.

26. Singer: “This requires me to weigh up all these interests and adopt the course of action most likely to maximise the interest of those affected.” What counts as “the interest of those affected?”

27. What to maximise? “the interest of those affected” Pleasure? Those of my race/religion? Humans Preferences? Animals? Happiness?

28. Consequentialism The moral status of an action is fully determined by the consequences it brings about. Eg: “Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.” ~ John Stuart Mill

29. Consequentialism: Keys ideas The morally right action is what maximises good consequences. What counts as good consequences? Howto maximise good consequences?

30. The family tree Consequentialism Which consequences are to be maximised? Welfarist consequentialism (Utilitarianism) Non-welfarist consequentialism What is welfare? Hedonistic Utilitarianism Preference Utilitarianism

31. One for all • 10 people are in the hospital. 1 is perfectly healthy and is simply waiting for a friend. • 9 are in critical condition and will certainly die unless they each have a transplant. • The organ each of them needs is present in the healthy person. • As the doctor, is it right to kill the 1 to save the 9?

32. 2 islands Two asteroids are flying towards the Earth. One is about to hit Big Island and kill its 10000 inhabitants. The other is about to hit Small Island and kill its 10 inhabitants. A group of scientists have the technology to destroy only one asteroid. Thus, there are only two options: to save those on Big Island or those on Small Island. You have to decide what to do in the situation.

33. Runaway train There is a train speeding towards a dead-end. However, there is a problem with the brakes and the train cannot stop itself. If the train crashes, all 100 people aboard will die. However, as you see the train speeding towards the dead-end, you see an especially fat man standing on the platform. You can simply push him onto the track and that would certainly stop the train and save all its passengers. However, in doing so, you will kill him. (Let’s assume you’re too thin to stop the train with your body.) What should you do?

34. Taking stock Actions that maximise overall welfare could require terrible suffering to individuals. Reject Utilitarianism? Modify Utilitarianism? Must still be based on maximising utility

35. Maximising happiness • You are the leader of a country of 9 farmers. • At the end of the season, 9 farmers made a profit of $1000 each. • 1 farmer made a profit of $11,000. Quality of life • $1000: 3 units of happiness • $2000: 10 units • $11,000: 15 units

36. Maximising happiness WRONG? RIGHT? • Leave everyone’s profit to themselves. • 9 get $1000 (9x3 units of H) & 1 gets $11,000 (15 units of H). • Tax the 1 farmer $10,000 & distribute it equally among all 9 farmers. • Each gets $2000 (10 units of H). Total happiness: 100 units. Total happiness: 42 units.

37. Maximising happiness • Directly trying to maximise happiness could lead to failure • May need indirect approach • Act-Utilitarianism • Take happiness-maximising actions • Rule-Utilitarianism • Follow happiness-maximising rules

38. Rule-Utilitarianism • Rules which maximise happiness could require us to take actions which do not directly maximise happiness. • Problems with Rule-Utilitarianism?

39. Tyranny of the majority What about societies in which the majority can derive greater happiness at the expense of the minority?

40. Right? One group says, “I want this”. Another group says, “No, I want that.” How do we decide? We have to come down to a decision one way or another and, in most cases, we would go with the majority view, unless there is a reason to protect the minority position. So, under the Constitution, for example, there is no discrimination on the basis of race or religion. Why? Because society as a whole accepts that there should be no discrimination on the basis of race or religion. Indranee Rajah

41. Singapore • “… to build a democratic society, based on justice and equality, so as to achieve happiness, prosperity and progress for our nation.” - The Singapore national pledge • “What are our priorities? First, the welfare, the survival of the people. Then, democratic norms and processes which from time to time we have to suspend.” - Lee Kuan Yew, 1986 National Day Rally

42. Review • Applied ethics • Issues & Theory • Consequentialism • Which consequences matter? • Utilitarianism • Act & Rule Utilitarianism

43. Reason & Duty

44. Slaves of our desires • Utilitarianism seeks to maximise utility • Utility = Pleasure, satisfaction of desires, happiness • If the supreme moral principle is Utilitarianism, then morality is determined by what the majority happens to desire, etc

45. Slaves of our desires • We don’t get to choose our desires, or what gives us pleasure, or what makes us happy. • YET, we are morally obligated to follow where they lead us

46. Freedom & Morality It is good to be moral It is good to be free We can be free & moral if we choose to be governed by a moral principle which we freely give ourselves

47. Moral autonomy How to live? However I like According to the principle I have most reason to follow How should I live?

48. 2Kantian ideas • How should I live? • Moral worth of actions • What are my duties? • Categorical Imperative

49. 2Kantian ideas • How should I live? • Moral worth of actions • What are my duties? • Categorical imperative

50. How do you tell if someone is a good person?