Demokratisering

1. Demokratisering Kristian Stokke kristian.stokke@sgeo.uio.no Institutt for sosiologi og samfunnsgeografi

2. Hva er liberalt demokrati?

3. Den tredje demokratiseringsbølgen 31 % 74 %

4. Demokratiseringsbølger • Første bølge (ca. 1800 - 1930) • ”The Great Transformation” (Karl Polyani) fører til utvikling av liberalt demokrati ifm. Kapitalistisk utvikling, men også autoritære fascistiske og kommunistiske regimer og kolonisering i Asia og Afrika • Andre bølge (ca. 1945 - 1970) • Regimeendringer i etterkant av økonomiske kriser, krig og politiske endringer i sentrum av verdenssystemet • Demokratisering av aksemaktene etter 2. Verdenskrig • Avkolonisering i Asia og Afrika • Tredje bølge (1974 - idag) • Demokratisering etter den kalde krigen og under globalisering • Sør-Europa, Latin-Amerika, Øst-Europa, Afrika

5. Earlier theories of democratisation • Modernization theory • Historical experience in the West as model for the rest • Spread of modernity: economic modernization and trickle-down; diffusion of modern values; spread of liberal democracy • Historical sociology • Changing relationship between the state and classes shape the political system, i.e. a macrohistory of class structures, collective actors and class conflict. • Barrington Moore: political outcome of interaction between three classes: the peasantry, the landed upper classes and the bourgeoisie. Three routes to modernity: a bourgeois revolution leading to capitalism and democracy; a revolution from above leading to industrialization and fascism; a revolution from below leading to communism.

6. Political elites and democratic transitions • Transition theory • Democracy crafted by conscious, committed actors, not economic conditions. Pact-making within the political elite (politicians, party officials, bureaucrats and office-holders). Separation of political elite negotiations from economic circumstances and from popular forces.

7. Formal and substantive democracy • Formal democracy • Democratization as the regular holding of clean elections and the introduction of basic norms (e.g. an absence of intimidation, competition from at least two political parties, and an inclusive suffrage) that make free elections possible. A slightly more inclusive definition demands the introduction of liberal individual rights (freedom of assembly, religious freedom, a free press, freedom to stand for public office, etc.) or the creation of a polyarchic order. (Grugel 2002, p. 5) • Substantive democracy • Democratization is the introduction and extension of citizenship rights and the creation of a democratic state. Another way to think of this is a rights-based or ’substantive’ democratization, in contrast to ’formal’ democratization. The litmus-test for democracy is not whether rights exist on paper but, rather, whether they have real meaning for people. Inevitably, this implies a redistribution of power. (Grugel 2002, p. 5)

8. Political space Extensive formal rights Institutional reforms towards participation Political channels: tripartite alliance of ANC, SACP, COSATU Political discourses on post-apartheid justice Political mobilisation Past experiences: conscientisation and mobilisation through anti-apartheid struggle Organisations: civics, SANCO, unions, NGOs Well-organised civil society South Africa: Promising preconditions for real democratisation

9. … but also real constraints • Persistent and probably increasing relative and absolute poverty, i.e. problematic implementation of social rights • Cooptation and depoliticisation of popular forces, i.e. problematic popular political participation • Local developmental states but limited political autonomy and capacity, i.e. problematic construction of local governance • In short: impressive formal democratisation but also real constraints on real democratisation

10. South African social movements

11. Treatment Action Campaign • Constitutional right to health services • HIV/AIDS-treatment (nevirapine) for pregnant women • Pretoria High Court ---> Constitutional Court • Ruled against the government and gave a mandatory order for a comprehensive plan HIV/AIDS treatment • State claim: Interference in government policy-making • Legal struggle for social rights • Problematic field mainly due to resource issues (both for civil society actors and government) • Can budget and distribution questions be decided by the courts? What is reasonable use of state resources? • Siri Gloppen in ”Mennesker & Rettigheter” 2003, no. 1

12. South African Homeless People’s Federation • Realising the right to shelter for poor people in urban areas • Community mobilisation • Savings groups and housing construction • Alliance with People’s Dialogue • Political mobilisation • Non-partisan, but flexible political alliances • Resource mobilisation (housing subsidies, uTshani) • State housing strategy (”people-driven housing process”)

13. Location in political terrain

14. Empowered Participatory Governance • Empowered Participatory Governance • Archon Fung & Erik Olin Wright (2003). Deepening Democracy. Institutional Innovations in Empowered Participatory Governance. London: Verso. • Practical orientation • Emphasis on concrete everyday socio-economic development needs • Bottom-up participation • Institutionalisation of new arenas for direct democratic participation • Deliberative solution generation • Policy-decisions based on fora-based discussions

15. Design properties of EPG • Devolution • Devolution of financial resources and decision making regarding resource allocation • Kerala: Devolution of 40% of planning funds to Panchayat Village Planning Councils. Grama sabhas - assemblies of ward- or panchayat-based residents, inputs to higher-level planning/decision-making • Centralised supervision and coordination • Requirements regarding organisation of the decision-making process • Kerala: rules regarding organisations of meetings (4 grama sabhas per year) participation (women, scheduled castes) and allocation of resources (40-50% for economic development, 40% for social development, max 30% for road construction and at least 10% on women) • State-centered (not voluntaristic) • Civil society activism may seek to influence policy making processes but leave intact the basic institutions of state governance • EPG, in contrast, transforms the mechanisms of state power. Such transformations happen in close cooperation with ”state agents”

16. Critical points • Political and economic elites do not give up power • Ordinary people do not really participate • In short: continued domination rather than participatory deliberation • Political deficit: From institutional design for deliberation to ”What makes it happen?” • Rebecca Abers: EPG requires a dual process of commitment-building among state and society actors

17. Elite actors: PB as alternative political strategy • PB became a central strategy for re-election for PT (Workers Party) • PB responded to demands of neighborhood leaders, who would otherwise rely on the populist-clientelist opposition party • PB benefitted a key sector of the economic elite (construction companies) • PB gained support from the middle classes by delivering clean government • PB facilitated government co-ordination

18. Popular actors:Participation as worth the effort • PB mobilised poor people to participate because it addressed their prioritised needs • PB utilised activists from neighborhood movements • From competitive participation (based on self-interest) to deliberation, - deliberation as a learning process • PB utilised and generated, rather than undermined civil society activism. In contrast to Tharakan’s account of party-politicisation of civil society and problems of mobilising amrginalised groups