Folds, faults and deformation

1. Folds, faults and deformation

2. Deformation of Rocks • Folds and faults are geologic structures caused by deformation. • Structural geology is the study of the deformation of rocks and its effects.

3. Fig. 11.1

4. Orientation of Deformed Rocks We need some way to describe the distribution of geologic structures. So we use the terms strike and dip. Strike:compass direction of a rock layer as it intersects with a horizontal surface. Dip:acute angle between the rock layer and the horizontal surface, measured perpendicular to strike.

5. Strike and Dip on a Rooftop Fig. 11.4

6. Strike and Dip in a Rock Structure Fig. 11.4

8. Fig. 11.5

9. Stress:force per unit area Types of directed stresses include: • compression • extension • shear

10. Fig. Story 11.6

11. Fig. 11.8

12. Strength • ability of an object to resist deformation • compressive or tensile Fig. 11.7

13. Strain Any change in original shape or size of an object in response to stress acting on the object Fig. 11.1

14. Types of Deformation • Elastic: Temporary change in shape or size that is recovered when the deforming force is removed • ductile (plastic):Permanent change in shape or size that is not recovered when the stress is removed. Occurs by the slippage of atoms or small groups of atoms past each other in the deforming material • Brittle (rupture) Loss of cohesion of a body under the influence of deforming stress. Usually occurs along sub-planar surfaces that separate zones of coherent material

15. Fig. Story 11.6

17. Factors that Affect Deformation • temperature • pressure • strain rate • rock type The variation of these factors determines whether a rock will fault or fold.

18. Effects of Rock Type on Deformation Some rocks are stronger than others. • competent: rocks that deform only under great stresses • incompetent: rocks that deform under moderate to low stresses

19. Joints Cracks in rocks along which there has been no appreciable displacement.

20. Faults • Fractures in rocks created by earthquakes. • Faults are characterized by the direction of relative movement: slip • Dip-slip faults • normal • reverse • Strike-slip faults • Oblique-slip faults • Hanging Wall: Term used by miners. They could “hang” their light on this side of the fault because it was above them. • Footwall: Also from the miners, this side of the wall upon which they could stand below the hanging wall.

21. Fault breccia

22. Dip-slip Faults Motion of the fault blocks is parallel to the dip direction.

23. Rift Valley Fig. 11.13

24. Rift Valley Fig. 11.13

25. Reverse Fault hanging wall footwall cross section

26. Fig. 11.11b

27. Thrust Fault Thrust faults are low-angle reverse faults. hanging wall footwall cross section

29. Scarp Armenia 1988 Earthquake

30. Strike-slip Faults Motion of the fault blocks is parallel to the strike direction.

31. Fig. 11.11c

32. Fig. 11.11d

33. Folding of Rocks • Produced by horizontal or vertical forces • Scale can be from cm to 100’s of km

34. Fold Terminology axial plane:the plane of mirror symmetry dividing the fold into two limbs axis:the line formed by the intersection of the axial plane and a bedding plane horizontal fold:fold where the axis is horizontal plunging fold:fold where the axis is not horizontal

36. Beds dip away symmetrically from the axial plane Beds on one side of the axial plane dip steeper than those on the other side

37. Fig. Story 11.16

38. Both limbs dip in the same direction

39. More Fold Terminology syncline:a sequence of folded rocks with the youngest rocks on the inside of the fold anticline:a sequence of folded rocks with the oldest rocks on the inside of the fold

40. Fold terms synform:a sequence of folded rocks in which the limbs form an arrow pointing down antiform:a sequence of folded rocks in which the limbs form an arrow pointing up

42. And More Fold Terminology dome:a sequence of folded rocks in which all the beds dip away from a central point basin:a sequence of folded rocks in which all the beds dip towards a central point

43. Fig. 11.19

44. Fig. 11.19