Gender Inequality in International Education in the United States: A Comprehensive Analysis

1. Gender Inequality in International Education in the United States Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

2. Gender Inequality in International Education: Agenda • Background • Project Objectives • Research Methods • Timeline • Conclusion • Questions • References Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

3. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background • International organizations have advanced “Education for All” since World War II. • Efforts have emphasized increased educational access for girls and women. • Beginning with the World Conference on Education for All in 1990, the international community adopted specific target dates to achieve education for everyone. • The initial deadline was 2000. It was extended to 2015 and again to 2030. “Everyone has the right to education” (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 26). Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

4. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background • At the primary level, gender disparities disadvantage girls in 37% of countries. • At the secondary level, gender disparities disadvantage girls in 60 percent of countries at the lower secondary level and 43 percent of countries at the higher secondary level. • At the college level, women are disadvantaged in some areas of the world. In parts of Southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa fewer than 40 women are enrolled in college for every 100 men. Gender inequality persists in many countries Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

5. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background Data availability requires that gender equality in international education be measured in terms of participation rates. By itself, equal participation or parity does not equate to equality. UNESCO notes that more is required: “Full gender equality in education would imply that girls and boys are offered the same chances to go to school and enjoy teaching methods, curricula, and academic orientation unaffected by gender bias” (UNESCO 2003). Full gender equality requires more than equal participation Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

6. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background • Worldwide, 4.1 million students attend college outside their home country. • Enrollment is projected to grow to 8 million students by 2025. • With over a million international students, the United States is the top destination country. • International enrollment in the United States has grown from 1.1% of total students in 1948-49 to 5.2% in 2015-16. • International students in the United States contribute $32.8 billion to the economy and create or support over 400,000 jobs. The internationalization of higher education warrants examination of how country-level gender inequality impacts international student enrollment Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

7. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

8. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background Scant attention has been paid to gender disparities among international students Source: Institute of International Education 2016b; National Center for Education Statistics 2015; United States Census Bureau 2017. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

9. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background In U.S. higher education, women reached parity with men in 1978 Source: National Center for Education Statistics 2015. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

10. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background The gap between men and women international students has decreased since 1951 Source: Open Door Reports, 1952 - 2016. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

11. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background Since 2008-09, participation by women has decreased among international students in the U.S. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

12. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background The Institute of International Education focuses on the gender gap between men and women Image: Institute of International Education 2016a. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

13. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background The gap between women international and domestic students has increased from 10.3% to 14.0% since 1951 Source: National Center for Education Statistics 2015; Open Door Reports, 1952 - 2016. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

14. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background • Women represent a majority of international students in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and the Netherlands. • In Germany and Japan, there are more women among international students than among domestic students. • Overall, the United States is below the 48% participation rate by women international students among countries in the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The underrepresentation of women does not occur in all host countries Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

15. Gender Inequality in International Education: Background Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

16. Gender Inequality in International Education: Project Objectives • This project will examine gender inequality in international higher education in the United States using spatial data. • No comprehensive study exists of gender inequality in international education on a country of origin basis. • This project seeks to add to the base of knowledge concerning barriers to achieving gender equality in international education. “Almost everything that happens, happens somewhere” (Longley et al. 2015, 1). Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

17. Gender Inequality in International Education: Project Objectives • The Institute of International Education does not currently collect gender data by country of origin. • Interestingly, it did so from 1953 to 1974. It stopped doing so when it changed its report methodology. • Country of origin data by gender is available from the Department of Homeland Security’s Student Exchange Visitor System (SEVIS). Source: Institute of International Education 1954. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

18. Gender Inequality in International Education: Project Objectives SEVIS data shows significant variation in gender participation by country of origin along with regional differences Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

19. Gender Inequality in International Education: Project Objectives Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

20. Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods Three principal research questions will be addressed. 1. Whether a correlation exists between participation by women in international education and gender inequality within their country of origin. 2. Whether a correlation exists between the percentage of women participating in international education and the percentage of women attending institutions of higher education within their country of origin. 3. Whether a correlation exists between the percentage of women participating in international education and secondary education completion rates by women in their country of origin. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

21. Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods Data Sources Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

22. Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods Research Question No. 1 Research Question No. 1 will test the following null hypothesis: No correlation exists between participation by women in international education and gender inequality within their country of origin. One of several gender equality indexes will be used to measure whether a correlation exists between participation by women in international education and gender inequality within their country of origin. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

23. Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods • Gender Development Index (GDI) • Gender Inequality Index (GII) • Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI) • Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) • Gender Equality Index (GEI) • Gender Equity Index (GEI-SW) • Women’s Economic Opportunities Index (WEOI) Leading Indexes on Gender Equality have country coverage ranging from 108 countries to 188 countries Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

24. Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods Research Question No. 2 Research Question No. 2 will test the following null hypothesis: The percentage of women participating in international education is not higher than the percentage of women attending institutions of higher education within their country of origin. The idea for this question came from a journal article that speculated that “it might well be concluded that the way that the student migration channel operates relative to [] source countries may actually favour women” (Findlay 2011, 170). UNESCO data will be gathered concerning country level higher education participation rates by women. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

25. Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods Research Question No. 3 Research Question No. 3 will test the following null hypothesis: No correlation exists between the percentage of women participating in international education and secondary education completion rates in their country of origin. UNESCO data will be gathered concerning secondary completion rates by women. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

26. Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods Secondary Research Focus Two secondary research objectives will be pursued: 1. Current data will be compared with data from 1953-1974 to determine which countries have made significant improvements in participation by women. 2. Data will be sought concerning international student participation by gender in other countries to determine if there are any differences with the United States. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

27. Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods Data Issues What should the cutoff be to include a country within the study? How will missing data sets for some countries be handled? Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

28. Gender Inequality in International Education: Timeline Summer 2017 Fall 2 2017 Spring 2 2017 Winter 2018 Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

29. Gender Inequality in International Education: Conclusion • Gender equality remains a central international objective. • Understanding gender inequality in international education may assist institutions and policy makers in developing programs to eliminate barriers to full participation by women in this important education arena. • This understanding is necessary to reach Goal 5 of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals provides: “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.” "The results of research have little value if they are not communicated to people" (Montello and Sutton. 2013). Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

30. Gender Inequality in International Education: Questions Questions? Contact: Robert M. Myers rmm393@psu.edu http://robertmmyers.weebly.com/ Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

31. Gender Inequality in International Education: References Economist Intelligence Unit. 2012. “Women’s Economic Opportunity 2012: A Global Index and Ranking.” Findlay, Allan M. 2011. “An Assessment of Supply and Demand-Side Theorizations of International Student Mobility.” International Migration 49 (2): 162–90. Indices of Social Development. 2017. “Gender Equality.” http://www.indsocdev.org/gender-equality.html Institute of International Education. 1952. Education for One World, 1951-52. New York: Institute of International Education. _________. 1954. Education for One World, 1953-54. New York: Institute of International Education. _________. 1975. Open Doors 1975 Report on International Education Exchange. New York: Institute of International Education. _________. 2016a. “2016 Open Doors Presentation.” http://www.iie.org/~/media/Files/Corporate/Open-Doors/Open-Doors-2016-Presentation.pdf?la=en. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

32. Gender Inequality in International Education: References _________. 2016b. Open Doors 2016 Report on International Education Exchange. New York: Institute of International Education. Longley, Paul A., Michael F. Goodchild, David J. Maguire, and David W. Rhind. 2015. Geographic Information Science and Systems. 4th ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Montello, Daniel and Paul Sutton. 2013. An Introduction to Scientific Research Methods in Geography & Environmental Studies. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, Ltd. NAFSA. 2016. “The United States of America: Benefits from International Students.” New York: NAFSA - Association of International Educators. http://www.nafsa.org/_/File/_/econvalue2016_natl.pdf. National Center for Education Statistics. 2015. “Digest of Education Statistics, Table 303.10. Total Fall Enrollment in Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions, by Attendance Status, Sex of Student, and Control of Institution: Selected Years, 1947 through 2025.” https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d15/tables/dt15_303.10.asp?current=yes. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

33. Gender Inequality in International Education: References OECD. 2016. Education at a Glance 2016: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. OECD Development Centre. 2014. “Social Institutions & Gender Index: 2014 Synthesis Report.” http://www.genderindex.org/sites/default/files/docs/BrochureSIGI2015.pdf. Project Atlas. 2016. “A Quick Look at Global Mobility Trends.” New York: Institute of International Education. https://p.widencdn.net/hjyfpw/Project-Atlas-2016-Global-Mobility-Trends-Infographics. Social Watch. 2017. “Measuring Inequity: The 2012 Gender Equity Index.” Accessed March 25. http://www.socialwatch.org/taxonomy/term/527. UNESCO. 2003. Global Monitoring Report: Gender and Education for All, The Leap to Equality. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. 2016. Global Education Monitoring Report: Gender Review - Creating Sustainable Futures for All. Paris: UNESCO. United Nations. 1948. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/eng.pdf. Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A

34. Gender Inequality in International Education: References _________. 2015. “General Assembly Resolution 70/1, Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” New York. https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/291/89/PDF/N1529189.pdf?OpenElement. United Nations Development Programme. 2016. Human Development Report 2016: Human Development for Everyone. New York: United Nations Development Programme. United States Census Bureau. 2017. “International Data Base: World Population by Age and Sex, 2017.” http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpopgraph.php. United States Department of Homeland Security. 2015. “SEVIS by the Numbers Data, September 2015.” https://studyinthestates.dhs.gov/sevis-by-the-numbers/september-2015. World Economic Forum. 2016. The Global Gender Gap Report 2016. World Economic Forum. Geneva: World Economic Forum. World Globe Public Domain Image Credit: https://www.wpclipart.com/flags/flag_globe/world_flags_globe_tilted.png.html Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A