Learning, thinking and memory

1. Drs Joan Harvey and George Erdos Newcastle University Learning, thinking and memory

2. Types of learning • Trial and error- e.g. you can learn a computer package by trying out different functions to see what happens. Also trying new products, which can be facilitated by giving away trial samples. • Classical conditioning. Examples include the use of incentives at work, credits cards as conditioned stimuli and the use of theme tunes in advertising. • Operant conditioning. Examples: share payouts and bonus payments; use of reward vouchers or points; brand loyalty issues.

3. Types of learning [cont] • Association. Examples include: associating certain managers with different levels or types of supervisory style, so knowing that you can behave in one way with one manager, a different way with another. • Imitation. Imitation of good or bad management practices, such as absenteeism & presenteeism cultures. • Insight. Has least relevance but workers may suddenly realise why a difficult job is done as it is

4. Examples of reinforcement • Tokens e.g. Money, shares, profit-sharing • Desired activities e.g. Extended breaks, getting more responsible job • Social e.g. Friendlygreetings, compliments • Consumables e.g. Free lunch, company picnic • Objects/ Sensory e.g. Company car, Office with a window; new office equipment

5. Reinforcement • Positive [rewards of some sort] or negative e.g. being told when done things wrong]. • Reinforcement schedules: intermittent preferable to continuous: praise, recognition at work • Stimulus generalisation. E.g. need to learn that same response may be needed to similar but different stimuli, for example in diagnosing computer errors • Stimulus discrimination. E.g. telling things apart in order to respond appropriately: again an example is diagnosing computer errors … so be careful!

6. Who is the learner? • Many factors are relevant to understanding the learner at work: • age, • sex, • motivation, • incentives, • expectations, • learning style, • prior knowledge, • physical characteristics, • preferred memory type, • SES.

7. What is to be learned? • Length, difficulty, meaningfulness all relevant. • Verbal vs. visual information: • E.g. how to present information in training manuals e.g. circuit diagrams, screen shots in programmes

8. Method of learning • Active vs. passive learning. E.g. interactive training such as programmed learning • Transfer of learning: • of affect based on evaluative learning • and of cognition to provide ‘facts’ • Negative transfer

9. Learning styles • Many theories of these, and some are influencing UK Government education policy • Pask- serialist vs. holist • Kolb and Honey/Mumford- four styles- active, reflective, theoretical, abstract • Hermann- brain dominance model

10. The characteristics of an Information Processing System (IPS) Information processing and memory

11. Information processing and memory • Memory theories all include: • Input • Sensory registers • Short term or working memory • Long term memory • Response and output

12. Information processing and memory (cont.) • There is too much information coming in to process, so we remove it selectively by filtering. We remove up to 90% of what we process • Filters are influenced by set and expectations, motivation, perceptual defence, beliefs, personality etc.

13. LTM and STM • STM coding errors largely acoustic rather than visual • LTM early verbal coding may be literal, but later involves meanings • We store propositions based on what we have read, heard or seen but we also make inferred propositions

14. Information processing and retrieval • How we encode information affects our recall. • E.g. elaboration during encoding can help later recall • Mnemonics eg Richard Of York Gained Battle In Vain • Peg words [e.g. remembering lists of tasks] • Narrative stories [e.g. about other workers]

15. Organization of LTM • Episodic memory is autobiographical • Semantic memory is conceptual information • Procedural memory e.g. skills acquisition theories • Explicit and implicit memory. Explicit is more conscious whereas implicit is vicarious.

16. Memory theory as applied to training • Elaboration likelihood model • Paying attention involves central processing rather than peripheral route • So tasks that are interesting are processed centrally • But there problems with boring tasks that require concentration - they may be processed peripherally • Heuristic-systematic model • Use mental ‘short cuts’ or cognitive heuristics versus…systematically scanning all the arguments or approaches

17. Retrieval and remembering • Depends on encoding: • Situational issues • Meaningful to the learner • Present and use cues: • Verbal such as colour, typefaces, logos • Auditory such as word cues or music • Olfactory such as smells of cleaning fluids etc

18. Retrieval (cont.) • Recognition vs recall • Recognition of cues and prompts • Recognition superior as a memory device, but is less reliable • Should a trainer aim to trigger recognition or recall? • E.g. Recall for tasks performed remotely • E.g. Recognition for lawyers

19. Other encoding issues • Gender differences in encoding • Women encode more using relationship and social cues • Learning styles • How we choose to learn • E.g. reflective, abstract, experimenting, experiential [Kolb, 1980] • Dozens of theories of learning style

20. Making learning meaningful • Repetition • 30 seconds long enough to get information into LTM • Too much repetition will yield diminishing returns and may be counterproductive

21. Making learning meaningful (cont.) • Increased transfer by increasing realism • E.g. use of simulators where increased realism linked to increased cost but decreased errors, such as training pilots [30m Euros each] • Mnemonics and chunking • E.g. colour codes for electrical cables • Schemas • E.g. patterns of learning and remembering • Modelling • E.g. use of celebrities to aid training- not always a successful tactic

22. Learning and Training • Training an essential part of managerial responsibility • Training failures can be costly or even fatal • Training in different types of skills • Social- e.g. interviewing, • Management- e.g. delegating, prioritising, organising • Procedural- e.g. assembly jobs • Physical or sensori- motor

23. Systematic approach to training 1 • Initial decision to train • Strategic decision: to train, ‘poach’ trained staff or a mix of the two • Establish job description • Job analysis, task analysis • Establish personnel specification • Using 7 point plan or some other structure: • Relevant physical attributes, attainments, intellect, aptitudes, personality, interests, special circumstances • Then define ‘trainee entry behaviour’

24. Systematic approach to training 2 • Combine to define the criteria for successful performance • Establish training needs • Knowledge, skills and attitudes • Define training objectives • In terms of specific outcomes and standards for the training course • Decide on methods of training • E.g. experiential, programmed texts, exercises, case studies, simulators, lectures, role play, etc etc • Train • Who will be the trainers? • Train on-site or off-site? • Validate • Testing the training programme against its own objectives • Evaluate • Does it change the performance of the person when at work?

25. Training needs exercise • You are working for a large hospitality company and the task is to conduct a TNA for pub managers. In groups, you are to • Decide the criteria that differentiate successful performance from unsuccessful performance • Decide on the qualities of the trainees • List the training needs • Specify the objectives of the training • Decide how the training should be • Describe what you will do to measure the effectiveness of the training

26. Thank you for listening Drs Joan Harvey and George Erdos Newcastle University