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Chapter 21

Chapter 21. Alternating Current Circuits and Electromagnetic Waves. AC Circuit. An AC circuit consists of a combination of circuit elements and an AC generator or source The output of an AC generator is sinusoidal and varies with time according to the following equation

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Chapter 21

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  1. Chapter 21 Alternating Current Circuits and Electromagnetic Waves

  2. AC Circuit • An AC circuit consists of a combination of circuit elements and an AC generator or source • The output of an AC generator is sinusoidal and varies with time according to the following equation • Δv = ΔVmax sin 2ƒt • Δv is the instantaneous voltage • ΔVmax is the maximum voltage of the generator • ƒ is the frequency at which the voltage changes, in Hz

  3. Resistor in an AC Circuit • Consider a circuit consisting of an AC source and a resistor • The graph shows the current through and the voltage across the resistor • The current and the voltage reach their maximum values at the same time • The current and the voltage are said to be in phase

  4. More About Resistors in an AC Circuit • The direction of the current has no effect on the behavior of the resistor • The rate at which electrical energy is dissipated in the circuit is given by • where i is the instantaneous current • the heating effect produced by an AC current with a maximum value of Imax is not the same as that of a DC current of the same value • The maximum current occurs for a small amount of time

  5. rms Current and Voltage • The rms current is the direct current that would dissipate the same amount of energy in a resistor as is actually dissipated by the AC current • Alternating voltages can also be discussed in terms of rms values

  6. Power Revisited • The average power dissipated in resistor in an AC circuit carrying a current I is

  7. Ohm’s Law in an AC Circuit • rms values will be used when discussing AC currents and voltages • AC ammeters and voltmeters are designed to read rms values • Many of the equations will be in the same form as in DC circuits • Ohm’s Law for a resistor, R, in an AC circuit • ΔVR,rms = Irms R • Also applies to the maximum values of v and i

  8. Quick Quiz Which of the following statements can be true for a resistor connected in a simple series circuit to an operating AC generator? (a) = 0 and iav = 0 (b) = 0 and iav > 0 (c) > 0 and iav = 0 (d) > 0 and iav > 0

  9. Example 1 (a) What is the resistance of a lightbulb that uses an averagepower of 75.0 W when connected to a 60-Hz powersource with an peak voltage of 170 V? (b) What is theresistance of a 100-W bulb?

  10. Practice 1 An audio amplifier, represented by the AC source and theresistor R in Figure P21.5, delivers alternating voltages ataudio frequencies to the speaker. If the source puts out analternating voltage of 15.0 V (rms), the resistance R is 8.20 Ω,and the speaker is equivalent to a resistance of 10.4 Ω,what is the time-averaged power delivered to the speaker?

  11. Capacitors in an AC Circuit • Consider a circuit containing a capacitor and an AC source • The current starts out at a large value and charges the plates of the capacitor • There is initially no resistance to hinder the flow of the current while the plates are not charged • As the charge on the plates increases, the voltage across the plates increases and the current flowing in the circuit decreases

  12. More About Capacitors in an AC Circuit • The current reverses direction • The voltage across the plates decreases as the plates lose the charge they had accumulated • The voltage across the capacitor lags behind the current by 90°

  13. Capacitive Reactance and Ohm’s Law • The impeding effect of a capacitor on the current in an AC circuit is called the capacitive reactance and is given by • When ƒ is in Hz and C is in F, XC will be in ohms • Ohm’s Law for a capacitor in an AC circuit • ΔVC,rms = Irms XC

  14. Example 2 What is the maximum current delivered to a circuitcontaining a 2.20-μF capacitor when it is connectedacross (a) a North American outlet having ΔVrms = 120 Vand f = 60.0 Hz and (b) a European outlet having ΔVrms =240 V and f = 50.0 Hz?

  15. Inductors in an AC Circuit • Consider an AC circuit with a source and an inductor • The current in the circuit is impeded by the back emf of the inductor • The voltage across the inductor always leads the current by 90°

  16. Inductive Reactance and Ohm’s Law • The effective resistance of a coil in an AC circuit is called its inductive reactance and is given by • XL = 2ƒL • When ƒ is in Hz and L is in H, XL will be in ohms • Ohm’s Law for the inductor • ΔVL,rms = Irms XL

  17. Example 3 The generator in a purely inductive AC circuit has anangular frequency of 120π rad/s. If Vmax = 140 V andL = 0.100 H, what is the rms current in the circuit?

  18. The RLC Series Circuit • The resistor, inductor, and capacitor can be combined in a circuit • The current in the circuit is the same at any time and varies sinusoidally with time

  19. Current and Voltage Relationships in an RLC Circuit • The instantaneous voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current • The instantaneous voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90° • The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor lags the current by 90°

  20. Phasor Diagrams • To account for the different phases of the voltage drops, vector techniques are used • Represent the voltage across each element as a rotating vector, called a phasor • The diagram is called a phasor diagram

  21. Phasor Diagram for RLC Series Circuit • The voltage across the resistor is on the +x axis since it is in phase with the current • The voltage across the inductor is on the +y since it leads the current by 90° • The voltage across the capacitor is on the –y axis since it lags behind the current by 90°

  22. Phasor Diagram, cont • The phasors are added as vectors to account for the phase differences in the voltages • ΔVL and ΔVC are on the same line and so the net y component is ΔVL - ΔVC

  23. ΔVmax From the Phasor Diagram • The voltages are not in phase, so they cannot simply be added to get the voltage across the combination of the elements or the voltage source •  is the phase angle between the current and the maximum voltage • The equations also apply to rms values

  24. Impedance of a Circuit • The impedance, Z, can also be represented in a phasor diagram

  25. Impedance and Ohm’s Law • Ohm’s Law can be applied to the impedance • ΔVmax = Imax Z • This can be regarded as a generalized form of Ohm’s Law applied to a series AC circuit

  26. Summary of Circuit Elements, Impedance and Phase Angles

  27. Nikola Tesla • 1865 – 1943 • Inventor • Key figure in development of • AC electricity • High-voltage transformers • Transport of electrical power via AC transmission lines • Beat Edison’s idea of DC transmission lines

  28. Problem Solving for AC Circuits • Calculate as many unknown quantities as possible • For example, find XL and XC • Be careful of units – use F, H, Ω • Apply Ohm’s Law to the portion of the circuit that is of interest • Determine all the unknowns asked for in the problem

  29. Quick Quiz For the circuit of Figure 21.8, is the instantaneous voltage of the source equal to (a) the sum of the maximum voltages across the elements, (b) the sum of the instantaneous voltages across the elements, or (c) the sum of the rms voltages across the elements?

  30. Example 4 An inductor (L = 400 mH), a capacitor (C = 4.43 μF),and a resistor (R = 500 Ω) are connected in series. A50.0-Hz AC generator connected in series to theseelements produces a maximum current of 250 mA inthe circuit. (a) Calculate the required maximum voltageΔVmax. (b) Determine the phase angle by which thecurrent leads or lags the applied voltage.

  31. Power in an AC Circuit • No power losses are associated with pure capacitors and pure inductors in an AC circuit • In a capacitor, during one-half of a cycle energy is stored and during the other half the energy is returned to the circuit • In an inductor, the source does work against the back emf of the inductor and energy is stored in the inductor, but when the current begins to decrease in the circuit, the energy is returned to the circuit

  32. Power in an AC Circuit, cont • The average power delivered by the generator is converted to internal energy in the resistor • Pav = IrmsΔVR = IrmsΔVrms cos  • cos  is called the power factor of the circuit • Phase shifts can be used to maximize power outputs

  33. Example 5 A 50.0-Ω resistor is connected to a 30.0-μF capacitor andto a 60.0-Hz, 100-V (rms) source. (a) Find the powerfactor and the average power delivered to the circuit.(b) Repeat part (a) when the capacitor is replaced with a0.300-H inductor.

  34. Example 6 An inductor and a resistor are connected in series. Whenconnected to a 60-Hz, 90-V (rms) source, the voltagedrop across the resistor is found to be 50 V (rms) andthe power delivered to the circuit is 14 W. Find (a) thevalue of the resistance and (b) the value of the inductance.

  35. Practice 2 A multimeter in an RL circuit records an rms current of0.500 A and a 60.0-Hz rms generator voltage of 104 V. Awattmeter shows that the average power delivered to theresistor is 10.0 W. Determine (a) the impedance in thecircuit, (b) the resistance R, and (c) the inductance L.

  36. Resonance in an AC Circuit • Resonance occurs at the frequency, ƒo, where the current has its maximum value • To achieve maximum current, the impedance must have a minimum value • This occurs when XL = XC • Then,

  37. Theoretically, if R = 0 the current would be infinite at resonance Real circuits always have some resistance Tuning a radio A varying capacitor changes the resonance frequency of the tuning circuit in your radio to match the station to be received Metal Detector The portal is an inductor, and the frequency is set to a condition with no metal present When metal is present, it changes the effective inductance, which changes the current The change in current is detected and an alarm sounds Resonance, cont

  38. Example 7 Consider a series RLC circuit with R = 15 Ω, L = 200 mH,C = 75 μF, and a maximum voltage of 150 V. (a) What isthe impedance of the circuit at resonance? (b) What isthe resonance frequency of the circuit? (c) When will thecurrent be greatest—at resonance, at ten percent belowthe resonant frequency, or at ten percent above the resonantfrequency? (d) What is the rms current in the circuitat a frequency of 60 Hz?

  39. Transformers • An AC transformer consists of two coils of wire wound around a core of soft iron • The side connected to the input AC voltage source is called the primary and has N1 turns

  40. Transformers, 2 • The other side, called the secondary, is connected to a resistor and has N2turns • The core is used to increase the magnetic flux and to provide a medium for the flux to pass from one coil to the other • The rate of change of the flux is the same for both coils

  41. Transformers, 3 • The voltages are related by • When N2 > N1, the transformer is referred to as a step up transformer • When N2 < N1, the transformer is referred to as a step down transformer

  42. Transformer, final • The power input into the primary equals the power output at the secondary • I1ΔV1 = I2ΔV2 • You don’t get something for nothing • This assumes an ideal transformer • In real transformers, power efficiencies typically range from 90% to 99%

  43. When transmitting electric power over long distances, it is most economical to use high voltage and low current Minimizes I2R power losses In practice, voltage is stepped up to about 230 000 V at the generating station and stepped down to 20 000 V at the distribution station and finally to 120 V at the customer’s utility pole Electrical Power Transmission

  44. Example 8 A transformer is to be used to provide power for a computerdisk drive that needs 6.0 V (rms) instead of the 120 V(rms) from the wall outlet. The number of turns in theprimary is 400, and it delivers 500 mA (the secondary current)at an output voltage of 6.0 V (rms). (a) Should thetransformer have more turns in the secondary comparedwith the primary, or fewer turns? (b) Find the current in theprimary. (c) Find the number of turns in the secondary.

  45. Quick Quiz The switch in the circuit shown in Figure 21.12 is closed and the lightbulb glows steadily. The inductor is a simple air-core solenoid. As an iron rod is being inserted into the interior of the solenoid, the brightness of the lightbulb (a) increases, (b) decreases, or (c) remains the same.

  46. James Clerk Maxwell • 1831 – 1879 • Electricity and magnetism were originally thought to be unrelated • in 1865, James Clerk Maxwell provided a mathematical theory that showed a close relationship between all electric and magnetic phenomena

  47. More of Maxwell’s Contributions • Electromagnetic theory of light • Kinetic theory of gases • Nature of Saturn’s rings • Color vision • Electromagnetic field interpretation • Led to Maxwell’s Equations

  48. Maxwell’s Starting Points • Electric field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on negative charges • Magnetic field lines always form closed loops – they do not begin or end anywhere • A varying magnetic field induces an emf and hence an electric field (Faraday’s Law) • Magnetic fields are generated by moving charges or currents (Ampère’s Law)

  49. Maxwell’s Predictions • Maxwell used these starting points and a corresponding mathematical framework to prove that electric and magnetic fields play symmetric roles in nature • He hypothesized that a changing electric field would produce a magnetic field • Maxwell calculated the speed of light to be 3x108 m/s • He concluded that visible light and all other electromagnetic waves consist of fluctuating electric and magnetic fields, with each varying field inducing the other

  50. Hertz’s Confirmation of Maxwell’s Predictions • 1857 – 1894 • First to generate and detect electromagnetic waves in a laboratory setting • Showed radio waves could be reflected, refracted and diffracted • The unit Hz is named for him

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