Theories of Early Childhood Development

1. Theories of Early Childhood Development . FALL 2011

2. Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud –believed adult problems all stemmed from childhood • Childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence behavior -- controversial • Connection between conflicts during stages related to physical development, sexual/physical drives – and personality/behavior • Personality established by age 5 • Successful completion of psychosexual stages = healthy personality development; if not people get “stuck” in that stage (fixation)

3. Erikson’s PsychoSOcial Theory • Erikson – studied with Freud’s daughter • Expanded Freud’s theory to encompass the impact of the broader social contexts of the child and family; these relationships can influence behavior in positive/negative way • Said development occurs through one’s lifespan • Each major stage in one’s life impacts one’s personality and psychological skills • Typical Psychoanalytic comment: “She must never have learned to trust people when she was a little kid.”

4. Erikson’s 8 stages

5. Erikson – Stage 1: Trust v. Mistrust • Infancy – Major Event: Feeding • Most fundamental stage • An infant is utterly dependent • Development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers • If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure • Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust, fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable

6. Erikson – stage 2 Autonomy v. shame • Toddlers – Major Event: Toilet Training • Focused on children’s need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. • Toilet training a vital part of this process (controlling one’s body processes) • Success leads to feelings of autonomy, confidence, and security • Failure results in feelings of shame and doubt

7. Erikson – stage 3Initiative v. guilt • Preschool – Major Event: Exploration • Children begin to assert their power and control over their world by directing play and other social interactions • Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead and interact with others. • Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.

8. Children Live what they learn • If children live with criticism, they learn to condemn. 
If children live with hostility, they learn to fight. 
If children live with fear, they learn to be apprehensive. 
If children live with pity, they learn to feel sorry for themselves. 
If children live with ridicule, they learn to feel shy. 
If children live with jealousy, they learn to feel envy. 
If children live with shame, they learn to feel guilty. 
If children live with encouragement, they learn confidence. 
If children live with tolerance, they learn patience. 
If children live with praise, they learn appreciation. 
If children live with acceptance, they learn to love. 
If children live with approval, they learn to like themselves. 
If children live with recognition, they learn it is good to have a goal. 
If children live with sharing, they learn generosity. 
If children live with honesty, they learn truthfulness. 
If children live with fairness, they learn justice. 
If children live with kindness and consideration, they learn respect. 
If children live with security, they learn to have faith in themselves and in those about them. 
If children live with friendliness, they learn the world is a nice place in which to live. – Dorothy Law Nolte

9. Behaviorism • Focuses on objectively observable behaviors • 2 Types of Conditioning • Classical Conditioning – behavior the result of learning • Pavlov’s dog, stimulus-response (dog+food+bell) • Watson’s experiment: Albert and the white rat • Operant Conditioning • B.F. Skinner: “Skinner’s Box” • Positive/negative reinforcers – increase frequency of the behavior • Positive/negative punishment – decrease frequency of the behavior

10. Social Learning Theory • Bandura • Learning occurs in a social context – through the observation of others and the result of their behaviors • Importance of appropriate role models for one to learn/imitate (“Monkey see, monkey do”) • The role of COGNITION in learning – that is, children learn from observing others and THINKING about the outcomes, not just as a result of reward/punishment • Learning does not always result in a change in behavior

11. Maturational Theory • Gesell • Growth & Development is the result of an unfolding of genetically preprogrammed traits and abilities – biological aging process • G&D – generally programmed and predictable patterns to learning, growth, development • We are only slightly influenced by our environment and experiences • Children will acquire knowledge “naturally” as they grow • Sensitivity to children’s cues

12. Cognitive Theory (Constructivism) • Piaget • Learners “construct” knowledge out of their experiences • Result of interactions between one’s experiences and ideas/knowledge base (schema/schemata) • Assimilation (new/external incorporated into old/internal schema) • Accommodation (accommodating old to fit with new) • Adaptation (new learning)

13. Cognitive Theory sensorimotor stage • Stages of Cognitive Development - Thinking develops sequentially (4 STAGES) • Sensorimotor – 0-2 years • Children learn through motor actions and sensory experiences (e.g. seeing and hearing) • Behavior best modified through senses (e.g. a frown, a soothing voice, a gentle touch) • Need to explore and manipulate objects; children cannot think about things not immediately in front of them • Culminates in attaining the concept of object permanence.

14. Cognitive Theorypreoperational stage • Preoperational – 2-7 years • Ability to mentally act on/think about objects • Have attained object permanence, so they can think and talk about things not in their immediate presence • Symbols/pictures can represent objects • Language (vocabulary and grammar) expanding rapidly • Ego-centric thinking and fantasy • Still not logical thinkers; intuitive thinkers • Undeveloped sense of time

15. Cognitive Theory concrete operational Stage • Concrete Operational – 7-11 years • Adult-like logic appears but is limited to that which is concrete, real-life, observable • Recognition that one's own thoughts and feelings may be different from those of others and do not necessarily reflect reality • Ability to classify objects as belonging to two or more categories simultaneously • Conservation: Realization that amount stays the same if nothing is added or taken away, regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement

16. Cognitive theoryformal operational stage • Formal Operational – 11 and older • No longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgment • Considers several possibilities and other perspectives • Logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as concrete objects and situations. • Many capabilities essential for advanced reasoning in science and mathematics appear.

17. Sociocultural Theory • Vygotsky • Emphasized the influence of culture, peers, and adults on the developing child • Language a critical tool to thinking • Strong relationship between language and thought development • Importance of social experiences in shaping a child’s interpretation of the world

18. Sociocultural theory • Child development takes place both naturally and in the context of the child’s culture (books, traditions, technology, schooling, environment, etc.) • Cultures differ in how they lead children to progress • A child's development cannot be understood by a study of the individual only -- must also examine the external social world in which that individual life has developed.

19. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) • Refers to the difference in a child's performance when she attempts a problem on her own compared with when an adult or older child provides assistance. • Example: • A child is having difficulty writing letters. • An adult or another child writes out sample letters or helps the child trace over letters and the child is able to make progress. • This help is called scaffolding • Assistance from adults and peers in a child's environment helps support the child's development

20. ZPD • The gap between dependent performance (doing a new task with help) • and independent performance (doing the task without help) ride bike with mom and training wheels ride a bike alone, without falling off ZONE of Proximal Development

21. Bioecological Systems Theory • Bronfenbrenner (co-founder of Head Start) • Child at the core of 5 interacting and interdependent systems of relationships within their environment • Effects of both positive and negative forces on the child – quality of the systems • Intrafamilial forces – family, school, church • Extrafamilial forces – media, legal services, neighborhood • Importance of positive links among the forces

22. Bioecological Theory Vocabulary • Microsystem: The surroundings closest to the child - family, school, neighborhood, church • Mesosystem: Relationships within the immediate environment (microsystem) - Who lives with child? Who is the teacher? What is the neighborhood like? • Exosystem: Social settings that indirectly affect the child - parent’s work, neighborhood safety, available services, media

23. Bioecological Theory Vocabulary • Macrosystem: The culture, values, beliefs, attitudes – Value for family? Work ethic? Respect for elders? Pride in possessions? Ethnic & socioeconomic factors? • Chronosystem: Time, the changes over time in all systems - job change, family change, death/moving, school change, new sibling, getting older and having more responsibility

24. Bioecological System Beliefs • All the systems, even the more remote ones (macrosystem, chronosystem) have a great influence over children (positive or negative) • The quality of the systems and people affect the child’s development, AND • The characteristics of the child affect other’s perceptions of the child, which then affects the child’s development