Chapter 12: Human Remains

1. Chapter 12:Human Remains “There is a brief but very informative biography of an individual contained within the skeleton, if you know how to read it…” —Clyde Snow, Forensic Anthropologist

2. ThePathologist • Determines the time of death. This can be done most accurately if the body is found within the first 24 hours of death • Uses certain indicators such as algor, livor and rigor mortis. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

3. Rigor Mortis Skeletal muscles partially contract Joints stiffen, lock in place Onset is 10 minutes to several hours Rapid cooling can delay it Lasts up to 72 hours Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

4. Chemistry of Rigor Mortis Living muscle cells use oxygen to burn glycogen After death no oxygen— body makes lactic and pyruvic acids pH falls as acidity increases Acid promotes a reaction between actin and myosin which work together to contract the muscle Muscle shortens until all ATP and acetylcholine is used up Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

5. Muscle Contraction Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

6. End of Rigor Mortis The muscles relax when the body starts to decompose and the fibers begin to break down Autolysis- Digestive enzymes are released as the cells begin to disintegrate, destroying the muscle fibers Meat is more tender after rigor mortis has passed (Aged Beef?) Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

7. Rigor Mortis The rigidity of skeletal muscles after death. Temperature Stiffness Approximate Time of body of body Since Death • Warm • Warm • Cold • Cold • Not stiff • Stiff • Stiff • Not stiff • Not dead more than 3 hrs • Dead between 3 and 8 hrs • Dead 8 to 30 hours • Dead more than 30 hours Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

8. Livor Mortis • Livor mortis is the settling of blood, resulting in a reddish or purplish color pattern. • Lividity can indicate the position of the body after death. When lividity becomes fixed, then the distribution of the pattern will not change even if the body’s position is altered. • Lividity usually becomes fixed between 10 and 15 hours after death. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

9. Livor Mortis Soon after death, blood is still in vessels, so pressure on an area pushes the blood out As time goes on blood vessels break down as do blood cells and hemoglobin break down pigment moves out into the tissues Contact pallor is caused by pressure or constrictive clothing prevents blood from pooling locally Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

10. Livor Mortis Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

11. Livor Mortis After death cells release enzyme (fibrinolysins) that prevents clotting Blood in body stays liquid after death Permanently won’t clot 30-60 minutes after death Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

12. Algor Mortis Algor mortis is the cooling rate of the body after death. At a crime scene, the body temperature is obtained through: • Rectal temperature • Liver temperature Glaister equation: 98.4°F - internal temperature/1.5 = hours elapsed since death Generally the body cools 1 to 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit per hour until it reaches the surrounding temperature. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

13. Algor Mortis Body cools by Radiation (the higher the body temperature the more heat lost) Conduction depends on surface contact faster if in water because enhanced contact Convection Wind cools faster Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

14. Effects that Influence Algor Mortis • Temperature of the surrounding environment • Type of clothing on the body • Clothing Insulates body from heat loss • Wetness of the clothing • Air movement • Layers of clothing • Size of the individual • Obesity:Fat insulates, temperature falls more slowly • Ratio of surface area to volume: Children, thin people cool faster • In water? Cooling is faster since water is a better conductor of heat than air Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

15. Determining Long Post Mortem Intervals Decomposition occurs in stages Initial Decay (0-3 days) Autolysis--body’s own enzymes destroys tissue Begins immediately Putrefaction (4-10 days) Bacteria in gut leak out Anaerobic conditions Bloat from hydrogen sulfide, methane, cadaverine, putrescine released Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

16. The Smell of Death putrescine cadaverine Breakdown products from amino acids ornithine and lysine Amino acid loses CO2 H = white C = turquoise N = blue Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

17. Determining Long Post Mortem Intervals Black Putrefaction (10-20 days) Body collapses Liquid seeps into the soil Butyric Fermentation (20-50 days) Cheesy smell from butyric acid Maggots leave Beetles arrive Dry decay (beyond 50 days) Hair is consumed by moths and mites Bones are left Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

18. Longer Term Estimates of Time of Death Monitoring ratios of body decay products in the soil Dr. Arpad Vass, ORNL The Body Farm U. Tenn. The first well controlled experiments to explore decomposition Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

19. Volatile Fatty Acid AnalysisResults from the Body Farm Depends on temperature The hotter, the faster the reactions proceed Accumulated Degree Days (sum average daily temp) Decay is linear in Accumulated Degree Days Depends on whether body was buried or not Decay is faster on the surface More insect activity Warmer—2 feet down is fairly constant 50-55o F Decay is slower in acid soil Pine forests have very acid soil Decay is slower if the body is sprayed with insecticide Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

20. Adipocere—Grave Wax Adipocere is a wax-like substance formed by the hydrolysis of fat to fatty acids and soaps in presence of bacterial enzymes. It is resistant to bacteria and slows further decomposition. Formation begins within a month of death, and in the absence of air it can last for centuries. Formation can occur in embalmed or untreated corpses. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

21. Adipocere • Adipocere is formed under the following conditions: • On bodies are not exposed to insects • In a moist, airless environment (bottom of a lake, wet ground) • Prominent on cheeks, buttocks, stomach, breasts (areas with lots of fat) • An exposed, infested body (with insects), or a body in a warm environment is unlikely to form deposits of adipocere. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

22. Otzi, the Ice Man 5300 year old body Found by hikers in Austrian Alps Otzi is primarily now adipocere Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company www.spectroscopynow.com/.../MS_Feb08_otzi.jpg

23. Adipocere – Grave Wax • Over a timescale of centuries, adipocere in sealed airtight containers (such as lead-lined coffins used by the Romans) can turn into “body liquor" - a brown/orange fatty liquid that may be highly infectious. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

24. Hours since death = 98.4°F – internal body temperature 1.5 Summary of Decomposition Algor Mortis: Body cooling rate Livor Mortis: skin discoloration caused by pooling of blood Rigor Mortis: rigidity of skeletal muscles A pathologist estimates time of death from these factors. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

25. Summary of Stages of Death Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

26. Forensic Anthropology Forensic anthropology is a type of applied anthropology that specializes in the changes and variations in the human skeleton for the purpose of legal inquiry Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

27. Forensic Anthropology • A forensic anthropologist may provide basic identification information of skeletonized or badly decomposed remains. • From a whole bone or part of a bone, the scientist may be able to determine: • An age range • Sex • Race • Approximate height • Cause of death, disease, or anomaly Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

28. Osteology Study of bones 206 bones in an adult human Function of bones: • Provides structure and rigidity • Protects soft tissue and organs • Serves as an attachment for muscles • Produces blood cells • Serves as a storage area for minerals • Can detoxify the body by removing heavy metals and other foreign elements from the blood Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

29. Age Determination Most accurate estimations from: • Teeth • Epiphyses or growth plates • Pubic symphysis • Cranial sutures: the three major cranial sutures appear as distinct lines in youth and gradually close from the inside out. Investigators always use an age range because of the variation in people and how they age.The investigator does not want to eliminate any possibilities for identification. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

30. Age Determination Using Cranial Sutures Sagittal suture Sagittal suture completely closed • Males—26 or older • Female—29 or older Sagittal suture is complete open • Male—less than 32 • Female—less than 35 Complete closure of all three major sutures • Male—over 35 • Female—over 50 Lambodial Coronal Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

31. Age Determination Using Basilar Suture • Basilar Suture • Technically known as the synchondrosis spheno-occipitalis, closes in females as young as 14 and in males as young as 16. If the suture is open, the individual is generally considered 18 or younger. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

32. Age Determination Using Epiphysis Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

33. Age Determination Using Epiphysis Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

34. Gender Differences in Bones The pelvis of the female is wider. Males have a narrow subpubic angle (A) and a narrow pubic body (B). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

35. Male Female Sub Pubic Angle

36. Gender Differences The ribcage and shoulders of males are generally wider and larger than that of females. In addition, about one person in twenty has an extra rib. This is more common in males than in females. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

37. Gender Differences In males the index finger is sometimes shorter than the third finger. In females, the first finger is sometimes longer than the third finger. This is not often used as an indicator of gender as there are many exceptions. Is this a male or female hand according to the above rule? Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

38. Race Race is difficult to determine from most skeletal remains, especially since pure races are becoming uncommon. An experienced forensic anthropologist can generally place skulls into one of three groups: • Caucasian—European, Middle Eastern, and Indian descent • Negroid—African, Aborigine, and Melanesian descent • Mongoloid—Asian, Native American and Polynesian descent Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

39. Race Characteristics • Caucasoids—have a long, narrow nasal aperture, a triangular palate, oval orbits, narrow zygomatic arches and narrow mandibles. • Negroids—have a wide nasal aperture, a rectangular palate, square orbits, and more pronounced zygomatic arches. The long bones are longer, have less curvature and greater density. • Mongoloids—have a more rounded nasal aperture, a parabolic palate, rounded orbits, wide zygomatic arches and more pointed mandibles. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

40. What differences do you notice between these three skulls? Can you determine race? Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

41. Estimation of Height The height of a person can be calculated by using the length of certain long bones, including the femur, tibia, humerus, and radius. Below are the equations to determine average measurements for both male and female. (All measurements are in centimeters) Male Female femur x 2.23 + 69.08 femur x 2.21 +61.41 tibia x 2.39 + 81.68 tibia x 2.53 + 72.57 humerus x 2.97 + 73.57 humerus x 3.14 + 64.97 radius x 3.65 + 80.40 radius x 3.87 + 73.50 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

42. Odontology The identity of an individual can be determined by comparing a person’s teeth to their dental records. Unusual features including the number and types of teeth and fillings, the spacing of the teeth, and/or special dental work (bridges, false teeth, root canals) help to make a positive identification. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

43. Odontology andIdentification Teeth are often used for body identification because: • They are the hardest substances in the body • They are unique to the individual • X-rays are a good record of teeth Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

44. Facial Restoration After determining the sex, age, and race of an individual, facial features can be built upon a skull to assist in identification. Erasers are used to make tissue depths at various points on the skull. Clay is used to build around these markers and facial features are molded. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

45. With a skull: Establish age, sex and race Plot landmarks for tissue thickness Plot origin and insertion points for muscles Plot landmarks for facial features Select a dataset and mount markers for tissue thickness Mount the eyes Model muscles on skull Add fatty tissue around eyes and lacrimal glands Add eyelids Add the nose Add the parotid gland Add the ears Cover all with layers of skin Detail the face Steps in Facial Reconstruction Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

46. One Final Product John List killed his entire family, moved to a new town and assumed a new identity. Seventeen years later, Frank Bender reconstructed what he believed List would look like. It was shown on America’s Most Wanted, and he was turned in by the viewers almost immediately. . . looking very much like the reconstruction. Check out more about this story on CourtTV’s crime library: www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/family/list/1.html Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

47. People in the News Bill Bass is a forensic anthropologist who has assisted law enforcement with hundreds of cases. He established the world’s first and only laboratory devoted to the study of human decomposition at the University of Tennessee’s Anthropology Research Facility. It is known as “the body farm.” Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

48. The Body Farm The nickname of a two and a half acre research facility in Tennessee developed in 1980 by Bill Bass where bodies are placed in various conditions and allowed to decompose. Itsmain purpose is to observe and understand the processes and timetable of postmortem decay. Over the years it has helped to improve the ability to determine "time since death" in murder cases. Hic locus est ubi mortui viveuntes docent. This is the place where the dead teach the living. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

49. Anthropologistat Work This anthropologist is hard at work dusting away material from these imbedded bones. Picture taken at Chicago’s Museum of Natural History Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

50. More Applications Forensic experts may be called upon to give information on the life and death of humans and animals in unique circumstances, including: • Mass Murder (Oklahoma bombing, plane crashes, World Trade) • Earlier man (mummies, Iceman, Lindow man) • Historical Significance (Holocaust, uncertain death of famous people) • Prehistoric Animals (Dinosaurs) Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company