Chapter 19

1. Chapter 19 • After 1850, nationalism became a real political force motivating practical policies as it pushed peoples to national unification and the creation of nation states, in the process tearing multi-national empires apart and even precipitating civil war.

2. Chapter 19 • Nationalism • In the two decades after 1850, no political force was stronger than nationalism. • It pushed people toward national unity in Italy and Germany and threatened to tear the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires apart.

3. Chapter 19 • Political Realism • Unlike in 1848, however, the nationalist political figures were neither revolutionaries nor idealists. • From positions of established power, this new generation of leaders molded nationalism to fit harsh political realities. • They gambled, compromised, manipulated, and fought to achieve their goals.

5. Chapter 19 • Independent Italian states were brought together into a unified nation once Cavour became committed to the cause of Italian unification, laying the groundwork for the meeting between the Piedmontese army and Garibaldi’s troops in 1860.

6. The Drive for Italian Unification • Cavour • Cavour was born into a well-to-do, noble family living in Piedmont-Sardinia, a small, but relatively powerful independent state in northern Italy that also included the island of Sardinia. • Piedmont’s Leadership • Cavour’s goals were clear – modernize Peidmont economically and thereby win strength and respect for his homeland • Make Peidmont the central engine of the drive for national unification • Form a new Italian state as a constitutional monarchy under Piedmont’s king rather than a democratic republic or a confederation under the pope

7. The Drive for Italian Unification • War with Austria • Cavour and France’s emperor Napoleon III met at a French resort to discuss ways to move against Austria, a competitor of France on the Continent and the chief barrier to Cavour’s hopes for Italian unity. • After Austria declared war, France would help Piedmont drive the Austrians out of Lombardy and Venezia, and these two states would then be annexed to Piedmont-Sardinia.

8. The Drive for Italian Unification • Garibaldi • By early 1860, most of northern and central Italy had joined Piedmont voluntarily. • Nationalist Guiseppe Garibaldi organized people, conducted campaigns of guerilla warfare, and leading insurrections. Often in exile, he had become a well-known figure in Europe and the Americas. • In May 1860, accompanied by a thousand civilian warriors dressed in red shirts, he sailed for Sicily in southern Italy, where many peasants had already launched a revolt. • Garibaldi’s goal was nothing less than the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples, the largest and most populous of the Italian states, and then Rome itself.

10. The Drive for Italian Unification • Kingdom of Italy • Formally declared in March 1861, with Victor Emmanuel II as monarch and Piedmontese Constitution of 1848 as the national charter • The king, along with a parliamentary government elected by limited suffrage, would rule. • The Piedmontese flag now flew over all of Italy, from the Alps to Sicily, except Venetia and Rome; which joined the Italian state in 1866 & 1870 (excluding the Vatican palace

11. Chapter 19 • In 1850, the Germanic Confederation, dominated by Austria, did not constitute a unified nation; a unified Germany would only appear in 1871 with the creation of the German empire unified around Prussian leadership thanks to Bismarck.

12. Germany “By Blood and Iron” • Prussian Leadership • Like Italy, Germany as we understand it did not exist in 1850, except in the hearts of nationalists. • The best hope for German unity was with Prussia, which had strength thanks to economic expansion and leadership over the Zollverein. • Zollverein – a German customs union that fostered industrialization in Prussia and the Rhineland • When William I and his advisors proposed to double the size of the army, the liberals defeated the measure • Convinced that his royal authority was being threatened, William I called on Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

13. Germany “By Blood and Iron” • Bismarck • “I was born and raised as an aristocrat,” Bismarck once explained. He would remain loyal to Prussia’s landowning aristocracy for the rest of his life. • He entered politics in 1847 and came to believe that only an alliance of conservatism and nationalism could preserve the aristocracy and strengthen Prussia. • He became prime minister of Prussia in 1862. He had the backing of the king, aristocracy, and the army; and he promptly defied the liberals in the legislature, violated the constitution, and ordered taxes collected for military reform.

14. Germany “By Blood and Iron” • Wars for Unification • Like Cavour, Bismarck sought out political opportunities, created them when they failed to materialize, and did not hesitate to take calculated risks, including war. • In 1864, Denmark tried to incorporate Schleswig and Holstein, two small provinces lying between Prussia and Denmark.

15. Germany “By Blood and Iron” • Austro-Prussian War • Bismarck stirred up trouble with Austria • He gained Russia’s sympathy by supporting its intervention against rebellious subjects in Poland. • In 1866, Bismarck used threats and maneuvers to provoke Austria into declaring war on Prussia. • Prussia now controlled the newly created North German Confederation.

16. Germany “By Blood and Iron” • Franco-Prussian War • Bismarck confronted France in 1870 when the Spanish crown was offered to a Hohenzollern prince – related to William I. • Bismarck persuaded the prince to accept the Spanish offer, and the French immediately took alarm at being surrounded by Hohenzollerns. • The chancellor had taken his greatest risk, France seemed to possess enough military might and economic resources to humble Prussia. • The able Prussian troops quickly scored resounding successes.

18. Franco-Prussian War • Napoleon III was one of the captives • When the news reached Paris, the liberals overthrew the government of the Second Empire and declared the Third French Republic. • Paris surrendered in January 1871. • On January 18, 1871, Bismarck called the heads of the German states to Versailles in France. • In the Hall of Mirrors, the dignitaries proclaimed King William I, emperor of the new German Empire • He ruled until 1888 • Bismarck’s constitution for the North German Confederation became the constitution for the new German Empire. • The Second Reich included a large and growing population, a vibrant industrial economy, and a feared military. • Bismarck remained chancellor and lived to rule over his creation for the next 19 years.

19. Chapter 19 • Even as the United States strengthened politically and expanded territorially, growing regional differences led to a bloody civil war which reestablished national unity and government, at the same time as Canadian territories demanded to be a single nation.

20. The Fight for National Unity in North America • The United States • American culture began to free itself from European influence • North-South Divisions • The South remained agricultural, dependent on plantation crops and based on slave labor • The North enjoyed a growing population and favored federal over state power • Slavery • By the early 1800s, the northern states had eliminated slavery • In the North, antislavery sentiment grew • The Civil War • Regional differences ignited war between the North and the South • Canada • In 1867, the British North American Act united Canada into a single nation with its own constitution

21. Chapter 19 • The political force of nationalism pulled the multi-ethnic Austrian empire apart and caused subject nations in the Ottoman empire to revolt.

22. Divided Authority in the Austrian and Ottoman Empires • Austria • Nationalism pulled Austria’s multiethnic empire apart • Czechs, Serbs, Romanians, Magyars, and others wanted to form independent nations rather than be one with Austria (German) • Austria-Hungary, 1867 • In 1866, the dominant German minority in Austria compromised with the Magyars rather than fight over nationality issues • The Compromise of 1867, set up the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary • Each country had its own parliament, but the two were united under a common ruler, the head of the House of Habsburg • This arrangement did not please other national groups, especially the Czechs, who demanded equality with the Hungarians.

23. Divided Authority in the Austrian and Ottoman Empires • The Ottoman Empire • Like the Austrians, the Ottoman rulers also had to struggle with the divisive forces of nationalism. • Balkan Nationalism • In the Balkan provinces in southeastern Europe nationalism rose, producing movements for independence • Nationalism had fueled an unsuccessful revolt by the Romanians in 1848 • In 1856, the Romanians gained international support as part of the settlement of the Crimean War • They won their freedom from the Ottomans in 1878 • Due to nationalist movements among the Bulgars, they revolted in 1876 • Although each side committed atrocities, those by the Turks shocked the Europeans

24. Chapter 19 • By channeling nationalism into statebuilding, French and Russian rulers reached out to citizens for support, exchanging reform, social peace, and the idea of national greatness for support of the nation and its leaders. • Napoleon III and the Second Empire

25. Using Nationalism in France and Russia • Napoleon III • In France, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte promised reform while creating a regime based on authoritarian nationalism • He was originally elected president of France’s Second Republic in 1848 • He organized a coup d’etat on 12-2-1851 to seize power because the National Assembly refused to change the constitution so he could run again • Napoleon III tried to convince citizens that he would lead the nation to new heights in domestic and foreign affairs • Napoleon directed the building of hospitals, nurseries, and homes for the aged.

27. Using Nationalism in France and Russia • Napoleon III • He kept bread prices low, instituted a system of voluntary social insurance, encouraged cooperatives, and partially legalized labor unions • In 1862, his armies marched into Mexico City and set up a Habsburg prince, Maximilian, as puppet emperor for France • Napoleon withdrew his troops a few years later leaving Maximilian to deal with the Mexican forces, because of threats from the U.S.

28. Using Nationalism in France and Russia • Fall of Napoleon III • Declining prosperity weakened Napoleon’s position within France • To appease liberals and workers he made many concessions • By 1870 the liberal parliament had begun to gain the upper hand, and Napoleon III went to war with Prussia where he was defeated and captured • Alexander II and Russia Napoleon III had stood for order, reform from above, and national grandeur. Until he faltered, the French gave up their liberal sentiments for those ends. In Russia, Tsar Alexander II made similar appeals in an effort to overcome that country’s troubles

29. Using Nationalism in France and Russia • Russia’s Autocracy • By 1850, Russia had earned a reputation as the most conservative of the European powers. • Its government was autocratic under the tsar, its feudalistic society still bound serfs to the land and their lords, and its large army had feelings of invincibility • Crimean War • In 1853, war broke out between Russia and the Ottoman Turks • The causes were comlex • Russia hoped to take territory from the Ottoman Empire

30. Using Nationalism in France and Russia • Alexander II’s “Great Reforms” • Alexander’s “Great Reforms” came from above but proved much more far-reaching and dramatic • In 1861, Alexander freed Russia’s 22 million serfs and, a few years later, 25 million state-owned peasants • Other reforms made the judicial system more independent, created local political assemblies with elected officials, encouraged primary and secondary education by opening thousands of new schools, and reduced military service • Expectations for further reform rose too fast for Alexander • Alexander intended to transform Russia into a modern authoritarian state that could command the allegiance of its citizens and wield power through a reformed, supported military. He succeeded only partially.