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Classification of International Accounting Systems: Understanding, Comparing, and Predicting Developments

This chapter explores the classification of international accounting systems, helping to understand and compare different systems, identify potential changes, and address issues of harmonization. It examines deductive and inductive approaches, cultural influences, and accounting values.

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Classification of International Accounting Systems: Understanding, Comparing, and Predicting Developments

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  1. Chapter 2 Pola, Budaya, danPengembanganAkuntansiInternasional

  2. Klasifikasi membantu dalam Menguraiakan, menganalisa, dan memprediksi perkembangan sistem akuntansi. Perencanaan strategis dan keputusan pengendalian. Integrasi sistem internasional Classification of Accounting and Reporting Systems International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  3. Tujuan Klasifikasi Akuntansi Internasional • Menguraiakan dan membandingkan sistem akuntansi internasional • Meningkatkan pemahaman • Persamaan dan perbedaaan sistem • Pengembangan sistem dan perubahan potensial • Dominasi suatu sistem terhadap lainnya. • Mempertimbangakan isu-isu harmonisasi akuntansi internasional. • Mengidentifikasi masalah dan memecahkannya. International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  4. Tujuan Klasifikasi Akuntansi Internasional. • Negara berkembang akan memperoleh imfomasi sistem dari negara lain • Membantu akuntan internasional dan auditor. • Masalah dengan akuntansi dan sistem pengendalian untuk sistem MNE –dipahami dan dipecahkan International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  5. Pendekatan deduktif atau judgmental Faktor lingkungan diidentifikasi dan dihubungkan dengan praktek akuntansi nasional. Pengelompokan internasional atau pola pengembangan diajukan Induktif atau pendekatan empiris Praktek individual dianalisa Pola pengembangan atau pengelompokan di identifikasi. Penjelasan berdasarkan ekonomi, sosial, politik dan budaya diajukan. Riset Klasifikasi International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  6. Deductive approach • Mueller’s four approaches to accounting development • Macroeconomic pattern • Business accounting is tied to national economic policies – Examples: Sweden, France, Germany • Microeconomic pattern • Accounting is a branch of business economics – Example: replacement-value accounting in Holland International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  7. Deductive approach • Mueller’s four approaches to accounting development • Independent discipline pattern • Accounting is a service function derived from business practice – Examples: U.S. and U.K. • Uniform accounting pattern • Accounting is an efficient means of administration and control – Examples: France, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  8. Nobes’s Hierarchial Classification International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  9. Inductive Approach • Nair and Frank (1980) findings • 1973 data • Four measurement groups • British Commonwealth • Latin America • Continental European • U.S. • Seven disclosure groups • Could not be plausibly described • No explanation offered for difference in groupings International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  10. Inductive Approach • Nair and Frank (1980) findings • Differences between measurement and disclosure groups • Hypotheses not supported • Cultural and economic variables associated with disclosure practices • Trading variables associated with measurement practices • Overall – little attention given to influence of culture International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  11. Cultural Influences on Accounting Systems Culture, Societal Values, and the Accounting Subculture – Fig. 2.3 International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  12. Structural Elements of Culture • Hofstede – 4 Underlying societal dimensions • Individualism • Power Distance • Uncertainty Avoidance • Masculinity • Countries grouped into culture areas • Hofstede and Bond – 5th dimension • Confucion Dynamism International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  13. Hofstede’s Societal Dimensions • Individualism versus Collectivism • People’s self-concept: “I” or “we” • Large versus Small Power Distance • How a society handles inequalities among people • Strong versus Weak Uncertainty Avoidance • Control the future or just let it happen • Masculinity versus Femininity • The way a society allocates social roles to gender • Confucian Dynamism • Short-term or long-term orientation International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  14. Accounting Values – Gray • Professionalism versus statutory control • Uniformity versus flexibility • Conservatism versus optimism • Secrecy versus transparency International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  15. Professionalism versus Statutory Control • Accountants are perceived to have independent attitudes throughout the world • Public regulation or self regulation • U.K. – rely on judgment of accountant • France and Germany – implement detailed legal requirements • Link to societal value dimensions – Professionalism • Individualism • Weak uncertainty avoidance • Small power distance • Masculinity • Short-term orientation International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  16. Uniformity versus Flexibility • Uniform accounting plan and imposition of tax rules for measurement purposes • France and Spain • Facilitate national planning • Pursue macroeconomic goals • Intertemporal consistency and some degree of intercompany comparability b/c of flexibility • U.S. and U.K. • Link to societal value dimensions – Uniformity • Strong uncertainty avoidance • Collectivism • Large power distance International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  17. Figure 2.4 Culture and Accounting Systems in Practice International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  18. Authority and Enforcement International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  19. Conservatism versus Optimism • Conservatism seen as a fundamental value • Strongly conservative • Japan, France, Germany, Switzerland • Less conservative • U.S., U.K., the Netherlands • Link to societal value dimensions – Conservatism • Strong uncertainty avoidance • Long-term orientation • Collectivism • Femininity International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  20. Secrecy versus Transparency • Stems from management and accountants • Closely related to conservatism • Secrecy relates to disclosure • Conservatism relates to measurement • Secrecy • High – Japan, France, Germany, Switzerland • Low – U.S. and U.K. • Link to societal value dimensions – Secrecy • Strong uncertainty avoidance • High power distance • Collectivism • Femininity International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  21. Accounting Values and Societal Values International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  22. Accounting Values and International Classification • Accounting values most relevant to professional or statutory authority and enforcement • Professionalism and Uniformity • Both concerned with regulation and degree of enforcement or conformity • Accounting values most relevant to measurement and disclosure • Conservatism and secrecy • Country groupings • Optimistic and transparent • Conservative and secretive International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  23. Accounting Values and International Classification International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  24. International Pressures for Accounting Change • Growing international interdependencies • Harmonization of the regulatory framework internationally • Centrally planned economies embraces market-oriented approach • Former U.S.S.R., Eastern Europe, China • New opportunities for international investment, joint ventures, and alliances International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  25. Economic Groupings and International Organizations • European Union • Promotes economic integration/harmonization • UN • World Bank • International Monetary Fund • UN conference on Trade and Development • World Trade Organisation • OECD • Foster international economic and social development in industrialized countries • “Code of Conduct” for MNEs International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  26. Impact of MNEs and Globalization • Cultural and social • Employment and consumption patterns • Significantly influenced • Pressure for more accountability • Environmental impact International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

  27. Impact of MNEs and Globalization • OECD, EU, IOSCO work for harmonization and internationalization of securities markets • IASB and the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) • Professional organizations involved in harmonization International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 2 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

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