US Expansion in the 1840s

US Expansionin the 1840s

Focus Questions • Explain why and how the US expanded West in the 1840s? • Compare and contrast expansion West under Jefferson and Polk? • What were the positive and negative effects of expansion West?

U.S. Emerges as a World Power

US Expansion before 1840 • Original 13 colonies: expanded after huge land grant from the British in the Treaty of Paris in 1783 • The Louisiana Purchase by Jefferson in 1803 doubled the size of the US • Lands along the Canadian border were added by the Treaty of 1818 with British • Purchased Florida from Spain in 1819 (Adams-Onis Treaty)

US Expansion in the 1840s • In the 1840s, the US expanded further West, adding an additional one million sq. acres of land, into: • Texas, 1845 • The Oregon Territory (Oregon, Washington, Idaho Wyoming) 1846 • California, and lands East of CA – inc. modern day Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas – in 1848, in the Mexican Cession (half of Mexico – if Texas is included) the largest single addition to US territory • and then the Gadsden Purchase of 1853

Expansion in the 1840s • Motives for desire / demand for the US to expand further West, beyond the Louisiana lands, in 1840s? • 1. Industrialists: Why? • Find new sources of raw materials (and new markets later) • Get control of the port of San Francisco to engage in extensive trade with the Orient • 2. US settlers who had moved West, outside the US (Texas, Oregon, California): Why? • Wanted the US govt. to take over / annex these lands, so they could live again in the US, get the protection of the US govt. – to prevent massacres such as at the Alamo

3. Christian Missionaries: Why? • To bring Christianity to the Native Americans in these lands • To maintain strong religious beliefs among the Americans migrating West (Second GA – piety, membership, attendance) • 4. Social Reformers: Why? • More land for the rapidly growing population of the US (4m to 17m, from 1790 to 1840) – relieve pressure on Eastern Cities • To bring US reforms to the people living West, and to those who had moved West (Prison, Mentally Challenged, Women’s Rights, Temperance, Education)

5. Politicians: Why? • Fear that if the US did not expand on to these lands, then former European imperial powers would return (Br, Fr, Sp) • Growing belief among political leaders that the US had a “divine destiny”…a clear and “manifest destiny”, because of her superior culture and civilization, to dominate “from sea to shining sea.” (racial supremacy) and establish US political control • Expressed best by John L. Sullivan, editor of the Democratic Review : US version of Kipling’s / Britain’s “White Man’s Burden”

Sullivan believed that “this continent was intended by Providence as a vast theatre on which to work out the grand experiment of Republican Government, under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon Race” • The American Journal argued that b/c “The American people are the most independent, intelligent, moral and happy people on the face of the earth, they should expand the Republic that promoted such happiness.” • 6. Farmers and Laborers – opportunities to prosper….acquire land or more land, before farmers or bigger farmers

Texas • Was Spanish Territory • US had claimed jurisdiction, but agreed to back off in Florida Purchase Treaty in 1819 (Adams-Onis) • Under control of Mexico after it declared independence in 1821 • US offered to buy Texas from Mexico but offers were refused • Mexico welcomed US citizens into Texas: Mexico would benefit from their trade, taxes…

Some US settlers (soldiers) bought huge acreage at very low cost • Austin family was an example - Moses Austin and his son Stephen: sub let smaller farms to other US settlers • Unwritten agreement was that the Austins would bring in Catholic Americans, who would respect Mexican culture, learn Spanish, respect the authority of the Mexican gov. and eventually become Mexican citizens • In return, Texas would be given regional autonomy / state-hood within Mexico • Americans brought their slaves, even though slavery had been banned in Mexico in 1824: Mexican gov. turned a blind eye

By 1830, approx 30,000 Am’s had settled in Texas • Neither side fulfilled their promises • Santa Anna withdrew the promise of statehood after he regained the Presidency, on the grounds that the Americans showed no allegiance to the Mexican govt., hadn’t adopted Mexican culture … • Tensions mounted: to enforce its authority the Mexican gov: • prohibited any further importation of slaves • Prohibited any further immigration from the US, and • placed heavy duties / tariffs on the importation of goods from the US into Mexico

1836: US settlers, outraged by the restrictions, rose up in rebellion; compared Santa Anna with King George and declared Texas to be an independent Republic: named Sam Houston as commander of their army • Santa Anna led Mexican troops against Texas, surrounded and defeated a small force of Americans (Davy Crocket, Travis, Bowie) at a fort / mission - the Alamo – and then at Goliad • “Remember the Alamo” – mutilations, brutality… motivated other settlers • Houston launched a surprise attack on Santa Anna at San Jacinto, defeating him, forcing him before releasing him to sign a document recognizing the independence of Texas.

Texas then held elections and elected Sam Houston as its first president. Elected its own legislature, wrote its own constitution • Voted to apply to the US for annexation. • President Jackson wanted to annex it, but was advised postpone: might have provoked war with Mexico, and caused conflict between North and South by admitting another slave state – wanted to get Van Buren safely elected in 1836, without controversy • Texas then turned to the British and to France and even to Holland and Belgium, with whom it signed treaties: feigning possible annexation by them to try to pressurize the US into changing its mind

Remained the Lone Star Republic • US would change its mind during the years of Manifest Destiny…40s • Texas was annexed by Pres.Tyler, in 1845, days before leaving office, to spite Polk, who was very upset – he advocated annexing Texas and intended doing it after being inaugurated

Oregon • US trappers, missionaries, traders, first made their way to Oregon • Sent back word of the beauty, riches of the land, others followed • In 1818, under the Equality treaty, Britain and the US agreed to jointly occupy Oregon for 10 years, and then in 1828 they agreed to jointly occupy it indefinitely: one country could end the agreement if it gave a year’s notice • In Oregon, up to 1830, British settlers outnumbered Ams. The Anglo-Canadian owned Hudson Bay Company, a trading company, dominated trade and provided the only effective government there

After 1830, Am settlers began to outnumber Br settlers, esp. after the “Oregon Fever” brought hundreds of settlers along the 2,000 mile Oregon Trail. • By 1845, there were approx 5,000 Am settlers in Oregon, mostly South of the Colombia River, to Britain’s 700, mostly North of the Colombia River. • In that year US settlers formed their own provisional gov. and requested / demanded that the US gov. end joint occupation and take full control • So too did the Manifest Destiny supporters in the US

California • Meanwhile, CA, by the mid 1840s had grown to a pop. of approx 7,000 people of Spanish-Mexican descent, who owned huge cattle ranches (in addition to approx 70,000 Native Indians) • Included about 2,000 Am settlers / traders: Thomas Larkin was the most famous / successful • He built up a huge trade around the Monterey area and welcomed more Ams to settle in the area. • Other Ams, who moved down from Oregon, settled around Sutters Fort, owned by a Swiss immigrant trader, who sold them land at low cost

Larkin was appointed US consul to CA in 1844, to represent the interests of the US settlers, esp. after some of these settlers were driven from their lands by Mexican authorities. • US claimed $3m in damages for land illegally confiscated by Mexico

Manifest Destiny • In the 1840s supporters of Manifest Destiny talked of expanding into Texas, Oregon, California • Manifest Destiny was the most important issue in the election of 1844 between the Whig’s Clay and the Democrat’s Polk • Polk won the democratic nomination over Van Buren b/c he came out strongly for Manifest Destiny, advocating the annexation of these three territories • Jackson gave him his blessing – he became known as “Young Hickory” – won the Pres election

Polk • Strong supporter of Jackson, and similar career path: lawyer, plantation and slave owner, rep. Tennessee in Congress • Worked himself to death during his one term in the White House, workaholic; worked 18 hours a day. Died three months after leaving office, from exhaustion • As President, achieved what he set out to do - Served only one term, as he said he would

His Four Goals: • 1. Acquire Oregon • 2. Acquire CA • 3. Reduce tariffs • 4. Restore Van Buren’s independent treasury which the Whigs had abolished • He did all of these four things. He has been described by historians as Machiavellian (the end justifies the means), ruthless, devious, underhanded, and deceitful, esp. with regard to expansion

Polk and Oregon • He hoped to acquire it peacefully, not wanting to go to war with Britain, since he expected to go to war with Mexico over California. • Having promised in his election campaign to support “54’, 40” or fight” he now indicated to the British minister in Washington, Packenham, that he would accept a compromise – the division of Oregon along the 49th parallel (which would really give the US all of Oregon since the 49th parallel was the Oregon-Canadian dividing line) • Packenham took it upon himself to reject the US demand, and proposed that Oregon be divided along the Colombia river, much further to the South

Polk then declared that since the British turned down his first offer he would now insist on “all or nothing” – that the US be given all of the Oregon up to the 54’ 40” parallel. • He proposed to Congress that it announce to the British that joint occupation was over and that the US would aggressively pursue full control over the entire territory. • Congress approved and it seemed that war with the British was very likely.

But Polk was really bluffing, engaging in brinkmanship, wanting to test the British, trying to find out how important Oregon was to them – would they risk war for it or not, yet never intending that the US would actually go to war • Fortunately for Polk, Oregon was no longer that important to the British – were not prepared to risk war for it • Br were willing to settle the issue by granting the US all of Oregon south of the 49th parallel. Packenham was reprimanded and ordered to make that offer

Polk was thrilled and wanted the US to accept – but he didn’t want to be the one to do so – he wanted to keep the support of the 54’ 40” people and give the impression that he still wanted to expand the US that far. • He left the ultimate decision / announcement to the Senate, which accepted the British offer. • Polk was able to claim credit for acquiring the new territory, yet able to insinuate that he really wanted more, but that the senate restricted him

Polk and Mexico / California • Texas claimed border w/ Mexico should not be at the present location of the Nueces River but further South West at the Rio Grande River - many US and Texan settlers had moved there in the past few years. • Mexican govt. insisted that the border should remain at the Nueces River • Based on Manifest Destiny / Expansion Polk supported Texas’ claim for an expanded border. • Expected war – but was willing to negotiate first while there was any prospect of Mexico selling CA, and other territory to the US

Sent John Slidell to Mexico in Nov 1845 to negotiate with the Mexican govt. for the purchase of CA and other territory East of CA • US offered $25m for CA, $5m for lands East; and the US would take on the responsibility of paying the $3m damages being sought from Mexico by US citizens in CA for property losses (total of $33m) • Mexican govt. rejected the offer and refused discussions with Slidell

Polk hoped to engineer a war with Mexico to gain these lands – but he wanted it to appear as if the war was initiated by Mexico, that it was the aggressor, and that the US was responding, reacting, defending itself from attacks • Polk, in Jan. 1846, sent General Zachary Taylor and 4,000 US troops to the Rio Grande River to support the claims of Texas for an expanded border, hoping to provoke Mexican troops across the river into making the first attack • But nothing happened and on May 9th, 1846, a frustrated Polk told his cabined he intended to ask Congress to declare war on Mexico anyway, on the basis that Mexico refused to meet Slidell and rejected the US offer, and on the basis of the unpaid $3m to US residents in CA.

Ironically on that same evening, as if by fate, news of the bloodshed arrived - Mexican troops had in fact crossed the Rio Grande River, attacked a unit of General Taylor’s troops, with 16 US casualties (killed or wounded) rs. • This was the news that Polk had been waiting for. He was now able to go to Congress with a better argument for war. • The US should declare war on Mexico since Mexico had invaded US territory and killed US troops on US soil – “American blood on American soil” – in spite of US efforts to negotiate and avoid hostilities. • A majority of Congress accepted Polk’s interpretation of events

Exceptions were the Northern Whigs (anti-slavery group), among whom was IL congressman Abraham Lincoln; demanded to know exactly on what spot of Am soil was Am blood shed, for which he became known as “spotty Lincoln”. • These Whigs called Polk, “Polk the Mendacious” for lying about how and where the war started, arguing that the territory between the two rivers wasn’t US soil and that Polk deliberately provoked the war. • In their opinion, Polk had started an unnecessary war

There is no doubt that Polk provoked war w/ Mexico. In fact, he had been planning it for some time even before sending Slidell to Mexico. • In early 1845 he had advised Thomas Larkin – appointed US consul to CA in 1844 – to encourage US settlers there to agitate for the annexation of CA by the US, and had told Larkin that if the US citizens in CA rebelled against Mexican rule they would be supported by the US. • He had also sent the explorer John Fremont to CA on a supposed topographical and engineering expedition, but with an unusually large number of US soldiers to protect the expedition – the expedition was ordered out of CA by the Mexican govt., but it only moved just over the Oregon border and remained there…ready to invade when ordered

Polk also advised the US naval forces in the Pacific to be on stand by to support US settlers in CA should an uprising take place • Larkin, Freemont…. show that Polk was determined to acquire CA by fair means or foul – by negotiated purchase or failing that, by war • Text: CA was an important part of Polk’s program.. Mexico would not sell – it would have to be taken by force or wait for an internal American revolt… “bent on grasping CA by fair means or foul, he pushed the quarrel to a bloody showdown.”

Mexican-American War • Three campaigns; • 1. Taylor crossed the Rio Grande River, into Mexico, achieving victory after victory over the Mexican army, eventually defeating Santa Ana at Buena Vista, where 5K US forces overcame 20K led by the slippery Santa Anna • Santa Anna, had been deposed as Mexican dictator, exiled in Cuba, helped by Polk to get back on his feet (money), to return to Mexico, in the hope of regaining power, whereupon he would surrender, and concede the disputed lands to the US – regarded as a despicable bargain – supporting some one to sell out their own country. Anyway Santa Anna was using Polk, once back in Mexico he reneged on his promise and played a big part in resisting US invasion

2. Stephen Kearney, captured Santa Fe, proclaimed that the New Mexico region had been annexed by the US. Then headed for Monterey, CA • Meanwhile, in CA , US settlers led by John Freemont had rebelled when they heard of the declaration of war on Mexico – the Bear Flag Revolt / Bear Flag Republic • Aided by US naval forces in the Pacific. Kearney arrived – but the task had already been completed

3. Gen Scott landed at Vera Cruz with the main US expedition, forced its surrender • then defeated Santa Anna at Cerro Gordo, before moving on to Mexico city in one of the great campaigns in US military history (outnumbered, fought disease, difficult terrain) and forcing it to surrender Sept 1847

The public supported war – Manifest Destiny popular: also revenge for the Alamo • Polk, now anxious to end the war and settle the land issue, sent Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the State Dept. to negotiate a settlement. • He got Santa Anna to agree to an armistice after paying him a $10K bribe – but again, after taking the money, he didn’t keep his word – tried to fight on • Polk then recalled Trist – lost confidence in him - but Trist refused to return home, and entered discussions with the Mexican govt., ending with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on Feb 2, 1848

Polk was infuriated with Trist (denounced him as an impudent and unqualified scoundrel – fired him) • But was happy with the Treaty he brought back • Polk now regretted that he had not insisted on more land since Mexico so readily agreed to these terms • Main terms: • US control of Texas confirmed • New boundary recognized at the Rio Grande River • CA and other lands to the east of CA were conceded for $15m and US assumed the $3m owed to CA settlers ($18 rather than $33)

Mexican-American War Cost - $98m (plus the payments for land: $18m); 1,721 men died in battle; 11,155 died from disease

Polk did succeed in extending the US from sea to shining sea; added new lands of Oregon, CA, territory east of CA from which Utah, Nevada, Arizona would later be created: extended Texas to Rio Grande river. Polk helped reshape the continent of North America • The US benefited physically but politically the acquisition of new lands proved to be extremely divisive • One important consequence of the war was that it re-awakened the whole issue of slavery again when new territories and then states were created • The Missouri Compromise of 1820 would be challenged causing division between North and South

Land acquisition – always reopened the arguments about slavery, intensified pro and anti slave debate – disturbing balance between in the Senate • Shortly after acceptance of the Treaty, the Rep. for PA, Wilmot, proposed an amendment that slavery should never exist in any of the territory of the Mexican Cession • This Amendment twice passed in the House but not the Senate, where Sth members defeated it – they didn’t want to be deprived of potential slave states who would support the continuation of slavery.

Nth states and Antislavery forces supported Wilmot’s Amendment which became known as the “Wilmot Proviso” • Opening shots of the Mexican War were the opening shots of the Civil War – Polk won land but left the nation with the “ugly moral heritage of an embittered slavery dispute.” (text) • Emerson: “Mexico will poison us.” • Calhoun: “Mexico is the forbidden fruit – the penalty of eating it would be to subject our institutions to political death.”

“Mexicans could later take some satisfaction in knowing that the territory wrenched from them had proved to be a venomous apple of discord that could well be called Santa Anna’s revenge.” (text) • Gadsden Purchase 1853 • purchase of 29,640 sq miles of land on Sth borders of AZ and NM, from Mexico for $10m • Flat land, to build a Southern trans-continental railroad • Other Manifest Destiny supporters in the 1850s wanted to extend control over Cuba

Jefferson v Polk • Jefferson honorable in negotiations w/ Napoleon ($10m-$15m) • Paid asking price for Louisiana • Honest w/ Congress; embarrassed b/c Constitution didn’t allow the purchase – reluctantly switched from strict to loose construction • Feds opposed – but was popularly supported

Polk • Dishonorable, dishonest, brinkmanship, bluffing, deceitful, greed • Pretended he didn’t want Oregon divided w/ Br along the 49th parallel – gave impression he would fight for 54 40: allowed Congress to make the decision – but this is what he wanted; put responsibility on Congress; so he wouldn’t lose face w/ the Manifest Destiny people • Sent Taylor w/ 4K troops to Rio Grande River, an invasion of Mexican territory (after Slidell mission failed) – to provoke Mexico into war. • Helped Santa Anna back to Mexico from Cuba: promised Polk to surrender Mexico and give him the land he wanted; reneged on his promise • Later paid Santa Ana a $10K bribe to declare an armistice; took the money but again broke his word

Preparations in CA long before war – a year earlier – advised Kearney to stir up trouble and sent Freemont on a supposed topographical expedition – advised US navy in Pacific to be on the alert to support an uprising • Sent Trist to negotiate – then denounced him – feigned unhappiness w/ the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo but was very happy with it…

US Expansion in the 1840s