Why We Do Research

1. Why We Do Research Chapter 1

2. Ordinary Versus Systematic • Biased Question: A question that leads to a specific response or excludes a certain group • Nonscientific thinking leads to asking questions that are slanted in a particular direction

3. Limited Sample: can only make conclusions about the group that was surveyed • Tendency is to generalize to all people • Results only as good as the way the question was framed and the responding sample

4. Selective Attention: Putting emphasis on what is important to ‘us’ • Need to consider what we perceive and what we retain • Difficulty comes in overgeneralization, based on a few observations

5. Scientific Thinking • It is common to think about in terms of questions, observations, data, hypotheses, testing, and theories. These are formal parts of the scientific method. • Most important parts of scientific thinking: • using empirical evidence • practicing logical reasoning • possessing a skeptical attitude

6. Empirical Evidence • Empirical evidence: evidence that one see, hear, touch, taste, or smell. • It is evidence that others can experience. • It is repeatable. • Another name for empirical evidence is natural evidence: the evidence found in nature.

7. Authoritarian Evidence • Authoritarian evidence: what authorities (people, books, billboards, television commercials, etc.) tell you to believe • The most common alternative to empirical evidence. • Education relies almost entirely upon authoritarian evidence. Teachers, instructors, and professors are generally considered to be reliable and trustworthy authorities, but even they should be questioned on occasion.

8. Rationalism • Logic allows us to reason correctly, but it is a complex topic and not easily learned. • Logic is a skill or discipline that must be learned within a formal educational environment. • Often logical reasoning requires a struggle: • emotions are not evidence • feelings are not facts • subjective beliefs are not substantive beliefs

9. Skepticism • Skepticism: constant questioning of your beliefs and conclusions. • Good researchers constantly examine the evidence, arguments, and reasons for their beliefs. • Question the truth and reliability of the knowledge claims of others and the knowledge you already possess.

10. Scientific Thinking • Scientific and critical thinking require that one reject blind faith, authority, revelation, and subjective human feelings as a basis for reliable belief and knowledge.

11. Purposes of Research • Exploratory • gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering some of its main dimensions, and possibly planning more structured research • Descriptive • Political poll predicting who will win an election • Anthropologist’s ethnographic account of a preliterate tribe • Census Bureau’s report on number of Americans • Explanatory • Take it one step further

12. Evaluation • Evaluate specific outcomes and provide explanations for why and how a particular result occurred

13. Research Methods • “In practice, survey research methods, like many specific scientific laboratory techniques, remain more of an art than a science.” • Lauman, etal. (1994:57)

14. Let’s do a little group work • Compare/Contrast everyday experiences and scientific thinking. • Does correlation imply causation? Explain. • What research method do you find most useful, related to your research interest? Why?

15. Cause and Effect • Causal Research: • objective is to determine which variable might be causing a certain behavior • Correlation is a measure of association that tests whether a relationship exists between two variables. • it is never possible to prove causality, but only to show to what degree it is probable.

16. Establish ‘causal relationship’ • Time order: The cause must have occurred before the effect • Co-variation (statistical association): Changes in the value of the independent variable must be accompanied by changes in the value of the dependent variable • Rationale: There must be a logical and compelling explanation for why these two variables are related • Non-spuriousness: It must be established that the independent variable X, and only X, was the cause of changes in the dependent variable Y; rival explanations must be ruled out.

17. Correlation Does Not Imply Causation • There is a statistical correlation over months of the year between ice cream consumption and the number of assaults. Does this mean ice cream manufacturers are responsible for crime? • No! The correlations occurs statistically because the hot temperatures of summer cause both ice cream consumption and assaults to increase. • Thus, correlation does NOT imply causation. Other factors besides cause and effect can create an observed correlation.

18. Choosing Methods • Must consider the pros and cons • What are you studying? • Time? • Cost? • Set of assumptions • Philosophical questions

19. Warning… • Do not say ‘I want to do survey research, but I am not sure what I am studying’ • ALWAYS start with a Research Question

20. Class Focus and other Choices • Focus will be on quantitative survey methods • Other choices include: • Experimental • Qualitative Methods • Content Analysis/Archival Research • Quantitative Methods