Meta-ethics

1. Meta-ethics Philosophy Teachers’ Support Day @ St. Andrews 3rd February 2007 Neil Sinclair (nss9@st-andrews.ac.uk)

2. 1. What is meta-ethics? A curious fact about humans: - We have a moral terminology (e.g. ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘right’, ‘wrong’) - We have a moral discourse (e.g. debates about catholic adoption agencies). - We engage in moral thought (e.g. concerning the morality of sexual discrimination). - Our actions can be guided by the above (e.g. government decision not to exempt catholic adoption agencies). Call the collection of these activities ‘moral practice’. Meta-ethics is the systematic study of what we are doing when we engage in moral practice. Meta-ethics is not ethics. Two useful analogies: - Philosophers of science (not scientists). - Football commentators (not footballers).

3. 1. What is meta-ethics? (ctd.) The understanding sought is not historical or sociological but philosophical. In particular concerned with: • Semantics/linguistics: What do moral terms mean? What linguistic function do they have? • Psychology: What sort of mental state is involved in accepting a moral claim? A belief? An emotion? What role do they play in our behaviour? • Metaphysics: Is there any moral reality, moral properties or moral facts? If so, what are they like? • Epistemology: What sort of reason, if any, can be adduced in favour of moral claims? Is moral knowledge obtainable? If so how?

4. 2. Moral Realism Moral judgements are maps of moral reality. • Semantics: Moral judgements offer descriptions of the world and some of these descriptions are successful. Successful moral descriptions state the moral facts (‘factualism’). • Psychology: Moral judgements express states of mind that represent the world as being some way. i.e. beliefs (‘cognitivism’). • Metaphysics: There is an independently existing moral reality (i.e. moral facts, properties, whatever) which our moral judgements seek to describe. • Are moral properties natural (e.g. Brink) or non-natural (e.g. Moore, Shafer-Landau)? • How are moral properties related to other properties? Are they irreducidible (Moore, Shafer-Landau), empirically reducible (e.g. Brink, Boyd) or analytically reducible (e.g. Lewis, Railton)? • Epistemology: Our moral judgements are justified to the extent that they are the result of some sort of specified contact with reality. (NB. Most realists are also optimists).

5. 3. Expressivism The House of Commons example. Core claim: Moral judgements do not function to describe some moral reality, rather they express agents’ attitudes. E.g. “Vivisection is wrong” expresses disapproval of vivisection. Hence the ‘Boo-Hooray!’ theory of ethics.

6. 3. Expressivism (ctd.) • Semantics: Moral judgements express non-descriptive states of mind, thus do not attempt to state facts NB. If a proposition is a statement that is truth-apt then (given certain natural views about truth) expressivists must deny that moral judgements express propositions. • Psychology: To accept a moral claim is to have a certain non-cognitive attitude directed at an object (hence ‘non-cogntivism’). Variations: - The attitude is an emotion (Ayer, Stevenson) - The attitude is a universal preference (Hare) - The attitude is a practical stance (Blackburn) • Metaphysics: There is no moral reality • Epistemology: No place for a ‘moral sense’. Moral judgements are not justified by conforming to some moral reality

7. 3. Expressivism (ctd.) • NB. For Ayer ethics was mere expression of attitude. For Stevenson the expression served a worthwhile practical purpose (that of co-ordination). • NB. Expressivism is distinct from subjectivism. There is a distinction between expressing an attitude and describing oneself as having it.

8. 4.1 Ayer’s verificationalist argument • A statement is factually significant if and only if there is some observation that would count as evidence for accepting it as true or for rejecting it as false. • There is no observation that could possibly count as evidence for accepting a moral statement as true, or for rejecting it as false. Therefore: • Moral statements are not factually significant.

9. 4.1 Ayer's Verificationalist argument (ctd.) Quine's attack on verificationalism: (i) Radon emits electrons Only has observational consequences when combined with background hypotheses such as: (ii) Electrons leave a trail when they pass through water vapour (iii) This stuff is water vapour (iv) That stuff is radon. (i)-(iv) have the observational consequences: “If we put that stuff in a cloud chamber we will observe a trail” Similarly, moral claims have observational consequences when combined with background assumptions. E.g. (v) Hitler was a good man (vi) No good man would oversee the Holocaust (v) and (vi) produce the observational consequence: “Hitler didn’t oversee the Holocaust” Moral: Just as scientific claims only have observational consequences when considered in groups, so do moral claims. So moral claims are no more unverifiable than scientific claims, and Ayer’s argument fails

10. 4.2 Mackie's argument from ontological queerness • If moral realism is true, moral judgements are made true by the existence of objectively existing and necessarily motivating entities. • Objectively existing and necessarily motivating entities are metaphysically queer. • We have no reason to believe in the existence of metaphysically queer entities (application of Ockham’s razor). Therefore: • Moral realism is false

11. 4.2 Mackie's argument from ontological queerness (ctd.) Problems with the argument: • What is metaphysically queer may still exist. • Moral entities may not be necessarily motivating.

12. 4.3 Mackie's argument from relativity 1. If moral realism were true, then different cultures would tend to converge on the same moral judgements over time (absent epistemological errors and the like). 2. Different cultures do not tend to converge on the same moral judgements over time (even when they come together and even when free from epistemological errors and the like). Therefore 3. Moral realism is false.

13. 4.4 Argument from practicality In general: moral judgements are practical in a way in which judgements that express beliefs cannot be. • Moral judgements are necessarily connected to the motivations of the agents that make them [‘internalism’] E.g. If I judge that murder is wrong, I will have some motivation not to murder people (other things being equal). • No descriptive judgements are necessarily connected to the motivations of the agents that make them. This is one component of ‘Humean Psychology’ (cf. Descartes' fountain). Therefore: 3. Moral judgements are not descriptive judgements

14. 5.1 The presumptive argument against expressivism (and in favour of realism) • Our engagement in moral practice carries the following commitments: • Some moral judgements are true, others false. • Some moral judgements are justified, others unjustified. • Some moral claims can be known. • Genuine disagreement over moral matters is possible. • Moral sentences differ in meaning from religious or aesthetic sentences. • The best explanation of these committments is that moral practice is a realist practice: • Moral judgements are made true by correctly representing a moral reality, otherwise they are false. • Our moral judgements are justified to the extent that they are the result of some specified sort of contact with moral reality. • Moral claims are known when they are believed, true and justified (in the ways specified above). • Moral disagreement is disagreement over the correct contours of moral reality. So it is disagreement in belief. • Moral sentences attempt to describe moral reality, whereas religious aesthetic sentences either attempt to describe religious/aesthetic reality or are not descriptive at all.

15. 5.1. The presumptive argument against expressivism (and in favour of realism, ctd.) Possible replies: • Deny that moral practice involves the commitments stated. • Deny that the appearances need saving: they are the result of conceptual confusions that can safely be dispensed with (revisionism). • The argument is abductive (inference to the best explanation) so alternative explanations might be available. Some tentative expressivist explanations: • For (iv): Moral disagreement is disagreement in attitude e.g. permitting smoking. • For (v): Moral judgements are practical – part of an attempt to influence attitudes – in a way in which religious and aesthetics attitudes are not (cf. Stevenson). • It is less clear what the expressivist might say about (i)-(iii). Minimalism about truth?

16. Moore's Open Question Argument • Given any specification of the nature of the situation in non-moral terms, it remains an open question whether any moral term correctly applies. (Where a question is open just when one can answer either way without being conceptually confused) • If it is an open question whether φ, which is X, is also Y then X cannot be defined in terms of Y. Therefore • No moral term can be defined in any other terms. Further • If a term is not definable in any other terms then either that term has no meaning whatsoever or it denotes a simple indefinable property. • 'Good' has some meaning. Therefore • 'Good' denotes a simple indefinable property. Problems • With (2): the open question test cannot accommodate unobvious definitional truths and fails for reforming definitions. • With (4): Moore ignores the possibility that (i) moral terms stand for natural properties without being definable in terms of them (cf. water = H20); (ii) moral terms have meaning other than standing for properties e.g. expressive meaning.