Introduction to Marine Science: Scientific Method and History of Oceanography

1. Chapter 1 Introduction to Marine Science

2. Bellringer: Scientific Method • What is the scientific method? • List the 5 basic steps of the scientific method.

3. Scientific Process • The scientific method • The formal, organized steps that scientists follow when proposing and testing a problem • 5 basic steps • Identify the problem or question • Make a hypothesis • Test the hypothesis • Interpret and analyze the results • Report the results, procedures and conclusions.

4. Scientific Process • Inductive reasoning • Propose a process that explains the facts you observe • Deductive reasoning • Propose what you would observe should a known process take place • Theory • Scientific explanation with observable evidence to support it

5. Chapter 2 The History of Oceanography

6. 4 Main Stages • Ancient uses and explorations (5000 B.C.-800 A.D.) • The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400) • European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700) • The birth and growth of modern marine science (1700-1900)

7. Ancient Uses and Explorations • Why did early civilization interact with the ocean? • To search for food • Trade with other cultures • Discover new lands • 3200 B.C.-Earliest recorded sea voyage • Egyptians traveled from Phoenicia to Egypt

8. Ancient Navigation • Piloting-mark course using visible landmarks • Sun, constellations and cloud formation when not in sight of land • Birds and smells

9. Ancient Greek Exploration • The first primary civilization to apply mathematics to navigation. • Produced sophisticated maps • Recognized the world was spherical

10. Important Greeks • Pytheas • Discovered how to determining north and south position by using the angle of the North Star and the horizon. • Discovered the connection between the lunar cycle and the tides in the Atlantic

11. Important Greeks • Eratosthenes • Calculated the Earth’s circumference • Invented the latitude/longitude system • Irregular because of alterations

12. Important Greeks • Herodotus • Published a map that was one of the earliest maps of the world known by the Greeks • Ptolemy • Published a map depicting the Earth as a sphere • Improved upon Hipparchus’ latitude/longitude system • Divided the grid into degrees, minutes and arc seconds

13. Herodotus’ Map of the World

14. Latitude/Longitude System • Purpose • Identify specific locations on the Earth • Latitude • Run east to west • Called parallels • Equator is a parallel and is 0˚ • The parallels at the poles are 90˚

15. Longitude • Run north and south • Called meridians • The converge at the north and south poles • The Prime Meridian • 0˚longitude • Runs through Greenwich England

16. Latitude/Longitude Grid

17. The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400) • European Middle Ages • Decline of the Roman Empire • Little ocean exploration except for the Vikings • Viking Explorations • 9th century: North Atlantic Ice freed • Allowed exploration westward • Discovered Iceland and Greenland

18. The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400) • Chinese Explorations • Invented the compass around 1000 A.D. • 1400s- ships built with central rudders and water tight compartments

19. European Voyages (1400-1700) • The End of the Middle Ages • 1400s- new interest in discovery and education • Economics, politics and religion became primary motives for long ocean voyages. • Route around Africa to India was sought • West coast of Africa was mapped by Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal

20. Exploration of the New World • 1519- Magellan set sail to circumnavigate the world • Started with 5 ships, 1 returned in 1522 • Never made it home, died in the Philippines. • Francis Drake completed the second circumnavigation of the world.

21. Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900) • James Cook • Led the first sea expedition devoted to the study of oceanography in 1768. • Invented the chronometer in 1735 • Was ordered to try and find Antarctica, but never did • Tried to find a northwest passage connecting the Pacific and Atlantic oceans above North America

22. U.S. Exploring Expeditions • 1836- Congress sent out 5 ships to explore the southern oceans • Proved Antarctica existed • 19 volumes of maps, texts and illustrations documented discoveries

23. Matthew Maury • Father of physical oceanography • An authority on ocean exploration and science • 1855- published The Physical Geography of the Sea • First textbook on modern physical oceanography

24. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle • 5 year voyage • Observations led him • To conclude that coral reefs form by growing upward as the sea floor sinks • To formulate his theories of natural selection and evolution

25. The Challenger Expedition • Launched in 1872 • First voyage launched solely for marine science • 4 year mission • Report took over 23 years to complete and filled 50 volumes • Discovered the Marianas Trench and Mid-Atlantic Ridge

26. The Challenger Expedition • First soundings over 4000 meters deep • Captured biological specimens from midwater and bottom using tows • Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts of the ocean • Identified 715 new genera and 4717 new species

27. 20th Century Marine Science • Industrial revolution occurred • Steam engines and iron ships revolutionize ocean transportation • Three expeditions

28. The Meteor Expedition • 1925 • Crossed the Atlantic 14 times in just over 2 years • Established patterns of circulation in Atlantic • Created the first detailed ocean floor map using echo-soundings

29. U.S.S. Atlantis • First ship specifically designed and built for ocean studies • Continued to add to the studies of the Meteor

30. The Challenger II Expedition • 1951 • Located the deepest known spot in the ocean within the Marianas Trench • Spot was named the Challenger Deep • 10,838 m deep (35,558ft)

31. Exploring the Deep • Submersibles- Allow for direct observations of undersea life • Bathyspheres-Simple sealed spheres suspended by a cable, no longer used. • Bathyscaphe-Free moving vessel • Trieste: Only vessel to ever visit the bottom of the Challenger Deep

32. Scuba • First system was developed by Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan in 1943 • Cheaper and less complex than submersibles • Limited in depth and duration

33. Other Vehicles • Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs) • Small, unmanned submarines • Propellers, video cameras • Tethered to the boat by cable • Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) • Untethered robotic device • Propelled by self-contained power systems

34. Other Technology • LORAN (Long Range Navigation) • Also called Loran-C • Used land based radio transmitters along the coasts • Not very accurate • GPS (Global Positioning System) • Replaced the Loran in the 1990s • Works everywhere, all the time!

35. Assignment • Use pages 2-3 -> 2-18 to answer the following: • P. 2-3 #2 • P. 2-4 #1,2,5-7, 9-11