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Learn the characteristics and skills required for effective academic writing. Explore different types of academic writing and understand how to structure and present your ideas professionally.
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Academic English The English used in academic, professional and technical contexts that is characterized by its high level and often discipline-specific vocabulary and rhetorical styles. Mary Schleppegrell The Language of Schooling
Types of Academic Writing • Essays • Laboratory reports • Research proposals • Personal statements • Presentations • Reflective journals
Characteristics of academic writing • Clarity • Objective • Impersonal, usually formal • Unity • Focus on one topic only • Coherence • Achieved by consistent use of terms
ApproachingAcademic Writing Who are you writing for? What are you trying to say? How are you going to say it effectively?
Proof-read and Edit your writing Writing Skills What do writing skills involve?
Purposes of Academic Writing • Advance knowledge in a particular field • Replication • Rational inquiry • Ways to verify scholars’ claims • Scientific method (techniques for investigating phenomena) • Develop, test theories on how the world works
“Journal editors, overloaded with quality manuscripts, may make decisions on manuscripts based on formal criteria, like grammar or spelling. Don't get rejected for avoidable mistakes; make sure your manuscript looks perfect” Arnout Jacobs, Elsevier Publishing Thus, both the science and the language need to be sound
Academic Writing for Science Subjects 3 C Principles Correct Clear Concise
Sample paragraph The business venture ultimately failed for three main reasons: The managers were inexperienced, the marketing strategy was flawed and the financial planning was weak. Management inexperience was the most significant reason for this failure. None of the managers had run business previously or even studied business. The managers had a corresponding lack of marketing experience and produced an incoherent and Inadequate marketing mix. Pricing and promotions were particularly problematic. Finally, lack of strategic financial planning and control led to enormous waste and over- expenditure. With these three central problems, there was clearly no possibility for business success.
Sample paragraph The business venture ultimately failed for three main reasons: 1. The managers were inexperienced, 2. the marketing strategy was flawed and 3. the financial planning was weak. Management inexperience was the most significant reason for this failure. None of the managers had run business previously or even studied business. The managers had a corresponding lack of marketing experience and produced an incoherent and Inadequate marketing mix. Pricing and promotions were particularly problematic. Finally, lack of strategic financial planning and control led to enormous waste and over- expenditure. With these three central problems, there was clearly no possibility for business success.
Sample paragraph The business venture ultimately failed for three main reasons: The managers were inexperienced, the marketing strategy was flawed and the financial planning was weak. 1.Management inexperience was the most significant reason for this failure. None of the managers had run business previously or even studied business. 2. The managers had a corresponding lack of marketing experience and produced an incoherent and Inadequate marketing mix. Pricing and promotions were particularly problematic. 3. Finally, lack of strategic financial planning and control led to enormous waste and over- expenditure. With these three central problems, there was clearly no possibility for business success.
Sample paragraph The business venture ultimately failed for three main reasons: The managers were inexperienced, the marketing strategy was flawed and the financial planning was weak. Management inexperience was the most significant reason for this failure. None of the managers had run business previously or even studied business. The managers had a corresponding lack of marketing experience and produced an incoherent and Inadequate marketing mix. Pricing and promotions were particularly problematic. Finally, lack of strategic financial planning and control led to enormous waste and over- expenditure. With these three central problems, there was clearly no possibility for business success.
Thesis Statement • Guess what I am thinking. • In order not to play this game, include a direct statement of purpose: • The purpose of this paper is…. • This paper seeks to…. • To that end, this paper will…. • Write the purpose sentence first. Garbage in, garbage out. • The thesis or purpose statement generally comes somewhere on the first page.
Topic Sentences The Topic Sentence may contain language which helps link it to other paragraphs, eg. • Firstly, • The most important reason, • The next step, • In addition to… • The result of…
Topic Sentences The topic sentence may contain language which clearly indicates the structure of the paragraph. eg. • …for three main reasons. • …in the following respects… • There are two methods of… • …has two advantage and one disadvantage
AP Hamburger Method • A Broad Statement on the Topic Question • Thesis: The Position you want to PROVE • The Organization Statement – 3 Points you want to prove that make up the (ESSAY) BODY Thesis 3 Paragraphs1)Topic Sentence 2) Facts 3) Facts4) Facts5) Analysis/ Transition Body of Your Essay Conclusion • Restate your thesis • Recap your points • Analysis/Conclusion
Paraphrasing • Original (Gratz, 1982): • Bilateral vagotomy resulted in an increase in tidal volume but a depression in respiratory frequency such that total ventilation did not change. • Restatement 1: • Gratz (1982) showed that bilateral vagotomy resulted in an increase in tidal volume but a depression in respiratory frequency such that total ventilation did not change. Ronald K. Gratz. Using Other’s Words and Ideas. Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University
Paraphrasing • Original (Buchanan, 1996): • What makes intentionally killing a human being a moral wrong for which the killer is to be condemned is that the killer did this morally bad thing not inadvertently or even negligently, but with a conscious purpose – with eyes open and a will directed toward that very object. • Restatement 2: • Buchanan (1996) states that we condemn a person who intentionally kills a human being because he did a "morally bad thing" not through negligence or accident but with open eyes and a direct will to take that life. Ronald K. Gratz. Using Other’s Words and Ideas. Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University
What is academic language? • Academic language is: • the language used in the classroom and workplace • the language of text • the language of assessments • the language of academic success • the language of power
3 C Principles Correct Clear Concise >>
Characteristics include A formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective, clear focus on the issue or topic rather than the author’s opinion, and precise word choice.
Language In English academic writing there is great use of linking devices. These can be signposts, connectors, repetition and synonyms… Sentences can have a number of clauses. Passives are widely used, along with a range of verb forms. Vocabulary is formal and often subject specific.
Repetition and redundancy Vary the sentences used when writing the abstract or describing findings at the end of the introduction Don’t copy from other sections verbatim! Avoid words with the same meaning In addition, sections were also stained with … After centrifugation, pellets were then…
Precise language Avoid make sweeping statements or over-generalisations…. “Everybody has benefited from Information & Communication Technologies.” ….by using narrowly defined language The development of Information and Communication Technologies has been particularly beneficial to people in developed countries and the wealthy in developing countries.”
Verb tenses within a paragraph • Generally, verb tenses within a paragraph are consistent. Because the writer did not keep verb tenses consistent, the reader was confused. Switching verb tenses often signals communication of a new idea. Such communication will often be facilitated by beginning a new paragraph.
Written academic English will not normally contain the followings • Contractions • ‘it did not’ instead of ‘it didn’t’ or ‘they have’ not ‘they’ve’ • Hesitation Fillers • er, um well, you know …
parallelism • Unbalanced sentences – make sure the clauses either side of “compared with” match up • Expression levels of p53 in smokers were compared with non-smokers… • Expression levels of p53 in smokers were compared with those in non-smokers…
parallelism • Incorrect use of respectively – two corresponding lists are required • The proportions of various monocyte surface markers were 45%, 63% and 70%, respectively • The proportions of monocytes positive for CD163, CD7 and CD11a were 45%, 63% and 70%, respectively
uses the third person, except in direct quotations. • Use of the first person “I” is traditionally seen as a violation of the quest for objectivity. There are, however, exceptions, e.g., qualitative research reports. In any event, the first person should not be overused. • Use of the second person (“you”) is invariably awkward in academic writing.
Agent or performer I undertook the study… I propose to … In this essay I will examine… No agent / performer The study was undertaken… It is proposed to… This essay examines… Avoiding too much reference to yourself as agent in your writing
Focus on the issue, not the writer Keeping your writing objective and impersonal can make it more convincing. • It will be argued that the benefits of sales promotion outweigh the disadvantages. • I will argue in this essay that ...
Personal In my opinion I believe that…In my view… 'Objective‘ It has been argued that Some writers claim…Clearly,…It is clear that…There is little doubt that… Expressing opinions
Fixed expressions • Fixed expressions (also called collocations) are another important area of academic language, such as: • peanut butter and jelly (not jelly and peanut butter) • salt and pepper (not pepper and salt) • Mr. and Mrs. (not Mrs. and Mr.)
‘The vocabulary shift’ • Need to move from informal to formal writing (academic and business contexts) • Choice between verb + preposition or a single verb (single verb is more formal). • Example: • The manager looked at the way tension builds up during performance review meetings.(less formal style) • The manager investigated the way tension develops during performance review meetings.(more formal style)
Use “Formal + Precise” verbs • Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms, which are usually of Latin origin and are more formal than their phrasal verb equivalent.
Avoid “Verb + Noun” Collocation >> use direct verbs >> Workshop Ex: Task 3
Sample instruction words(helps to analyse the essay question: account forexplain (reason) analyseexamine closely, examine in parts, show how the parts contribute to the whole argue present a case for and/or against assess decide the value of, judge, measure the importance of compare discuss two or more things in terms of their similarities and differences critically evaluateweigh arguments for and against something, assessing all evidence. Decide which opinions, theories, models or items are preferable. define explain, give full meaning(s), make clear what is meant by, use definition/s to explore the concept of describe give a detailed account of the features of something without interpreting the information discusspresent and give a judgement on the value of arguments for and against, consider all angles
Analysing the essay question: understand the instructional words distinguish bring out the differences between two possibly confusable items enumerate an item-by-item account, such as all the steps in a process evaluatejudge, criticise in terms of impact/significance, and investigate the implications examine make clear the details/meaning of, look in particular at reasons causes and effects, account for, give reasons, justify explore describe in detail, and note impact illustrateuse examples to show a concept indicatefocus on specific areas (similar to illustrate) interpretmake clear the meaning of, consider implications narrateconcentrate on saying what happened, telling a story outlinedescribe main features, a broad but thorough account, identify briefly the main features of
Correct Verb Tense • Generally accepted theories >> present tense • Specific research papers >> e.g. “describe, present” or “deal with, investigate” >> past tense • Author+ Reference number or date+ verb of report ( past tense)+ that +Findings (Present tense) Curie [1] showed that aluminum in seawater is regulated by a thermodynamic balance.
“Tentative” language Written academic English often uses words that sound cautious or tentative. Some of these words are: • Modal verbs (may, might, can, could) • Other verbs like seem, appear, suggest, indicate, assume, believe • Adverbs like perhaps, possibly, apparently • Adjectives like probable, possible, uncertain • Nouns like assumption, claim, evidence, estimate, possibility
Choosing between active & passive voice • The passive voice: The actor is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance. • The active voice: The actor is more important than the process or principle being described.
