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The Study of Learning and Behavior Science: Understanding the Natural World and Seeking Answers

This chapter explores the study of learning and behavior science, emphasizing the principles of science, the methods of acquiring knowledge, and the measurement of learning. It also discusses the different approaches in psychology and the importance of operational definitions and study designs.

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The Study of Learning and Behavior Science: Understanding the Natural World and Seeking Answers

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  1. Chapter 2 The Study of Learning and Behaviour

  2. Science is a Way of Thinking • Understanding the natural, physical world • Asking questions • Systematically seeking answers • Observation • Evidence-based research

  3. Basic Assumptions of Science 1. A true, physical universe exists 2. The universe is primarily an orderly system 3. The principles of the orderly universe can be discovered 4. All knowledge is tentative

  4. Natural Science Approach to Psychology • All behaviour is caused • Causes precede their effects • O natural phenomena • Parsimony: the simplest explanation that fits the data is best

  5. Methods of Acquiring Knowledge Scientific empiricism Empiricism Rationalism (Logic) Authority Intuition Tenacity

  6. Scientific Research Involves • Pose a question • How to answer it? • Empirical observations (data collection) • Data analysis

  7. Science of Behaviour • Circular explanations Q: why did the chicken cross the road? Q: how do we know the chicken wanted to get to the other side of the road? A: to get to the other side. A: because it crossed the road. • Focus on physical events that elicit behaviour

  8. Hard Line Behaviorism • John B. Watson • Psychology as “serious” science • Only use observable events

  9. Facts and Inferences • Most facts observed in psychology are behaviours • We infer the internal condition from facts • Constructs: ideas formed from inferences

  10. Learning • A change in behaviour • Experience • Acquisition of new behaviour • Loss of old behaviour • Observable behaviour change = a fact

  11. Behaviour • Anything an agent does that can be measured Experience • Events that affect or have potential to affect behaviour • Stimulus • Physical event (internal or external to body)

  12. Behaviour Change and Learning • Not all change due to learning • Maturation • Fatigue • Medication • Evolution • Injury • Etc.

  13. Measuring Learning • Measure changes in behaviour • Reduction in errors • Change in topography • Change in intensity • Change in speed • Change in latency • Change in rate or frequency

  14. Operational Definitions • Precise way of defining events • Multiple observers can agree on occurrence of event • Can be variation in behaviour • Interobserver reliability

  15. Learning Curve • Across situations • Humans/non-humans • Habituation, classical, operant, observational • Commonly shown in textbooks Responses/speed/ errors/etc. Time/trials

  16. Subjects Subjects 1, 2, 3 & 4 Subjects 1, 2 & 3 Subjects 1 & 2 Subjects 1-5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1, 2, 3 & 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Averages 1, 2 & 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 & 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials 1-5 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors Errors 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Trials Sample Size Maze study with rats Errors across trials

  17. Levels of Constraint • Precision vs. flexibility • Sacrifice • How much constraint? • Highest possible, given the questions being asked

  18. Low constraint High constraint Study Designs • Naturalistic observations • Anecdotal evidence • Case-study • Descriptive • Experimental research

  19. Anecdotal Evidence • First or second hand reports • Personal experience • Unidentified factors

  20. Naturalistic Observations • Observe subjects in natural setting • Minimum interference • Limited controls • Semi-naturalistic

  21. Case Study • Individual or small group • Detailed analysis • Time consuming • Representative sample?

  22. Descriptive • Often questionnaires, interviews, pre-existing data, simple data collection, etc. • Often, but not always, uses • Descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, st.dev.) • Correlational statistics: positive, negative, none • Statistical analysis usually (but not always) seen for large data sets

  23. Experimental Research • Manipulate one or more variables • Measure effect • Independent and dependent variables • High control • Artificial environment? • Simplistic dependent variable (i.e., behaviour)?

  24. Between-Subjects Designs • 2+ groups of subjects • Independent variable different across groups • Dependent variable differences due to exposure to different independent variables • Representative sample • Matched sampling

  25. Within-Subject Design • Each subject observed in different conditions • Baseline and treatment phases • ABAB design • Independent variable varies within the subject • Each subject both control & experimental “group”

  26. Variables • Variable: Any set of events that may have different values • Behavioural variables • Stimulus variables • Subject variables • Independent variables • Dependent variables • Constants

  27. Validity and Reliability • Validity • How well a study, a procedure, or a measure does what it is supposed to do. • Reliability • How well a measure can be reproduced • Replicability

  28. Hypotheses • Hypothesis: A statement about relationships among variables that implies empirical testability • Applied to a study or elements of a study • A “mini-theory”

  29. Theories • Theory: A formalized set of concepts that organizes observations and inferences, and predicts and explains phenomena • Applied to a collection of data derived from many studies • Testable • Theories can only be disproved

  30. Judging Scientific Theories • Testability/falsifiability • Simplicity • Generality • Fruitfulness • Agreement with the data

  31. Evaluating Research • Replication • Reliability • Conflicting results • Sampling bias • Sample: collection of subjects selected for a study • Population: much larger collection of animals or people from which the sample was drawn

  32. Evaluating Research • Distortions in self-reports • Self-reports: subjects give a verbal/written account of their own performance • Demand characteristics • Experimental bias • Intentional and unintentional

  33. Evaluating Research • Single-, double-, and triple-blind procedures • Placebo effects • Mithoefer & Mithoefer (2010) • Chronic therapy resistant PTSD; crime, war • Two exposure therapy sessions; MDMA or placebo • Two months later: PTSD in <17% MDMA subjects vs. 75% placebo subjects • Exposure therapy requires emotional engagement; hypothesize PTSD narrows patients’ “window” for engagement; MDMA may “widen the window” allowing them to stay engaged while revisiting traumatic experiences

  34. B1 R1 B1+B2 R1+R2 = Models • Representations of reality • Analogies • Need not be real • Make accurate predictions • New ideas generated from models

  35. Animal Research • Comparative psychology • Models for human behaviour • Simplified systems; more easily controlled • Considerations: ethical, relevance of features, appropriateness

  36. Issues • Differences between species • Knowledge of species • Theoretical vs. practical value • Ethical use of animals • Computer simulations

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