Chapter 2

1. Chapter 2 Foundations of Individual Behavior MRS. Shefa EL Sagga.

2. Learning Objectives • Contrast the two types of ability. • Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB. • Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are relevant to OB. • Define learning and outline the principles of the three major theories of learning. • Define shaping and show how it can be used in OB. • Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.

3. Ability Ability An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Types of Ability Intellectual Abilities Physical Abilities

4. Intellectual Ability 1. Intellectual Ability The capacity to do mental activities such as; thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Dimensions of Intellectual Ability • Number Aptitude…>>> as accountant. • Verbal Comprehension…>>> as manager. • Perceptual Speed…>>> as investigator. • Inductive Reasoning …>>> as market researcher. • Deductive Reasoning …>>> as supervisor. • Spatial Visualization …>>> as an engineering. • Memory …>>> as salesperson.

5. Physical Ability 2. Physical Ability The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics. Dimensions of Physical Ability • Strength Factors: (Dynamic strength - Trunk strength - Static strength - Explosive strength). • Flexibility Factors: (Extent flexibility - Dynamic flexibility). • Other Factors: (Body coordination – Balance – Stamina).

6. Employee’sAbilities Job’s AbilityRequirements The Ability-Job Fit Ability-JobFit The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization

7. Biographical Characteristics Biographical Characteristics Personal Characteristics • Age • Tenure • Gender • Religion • Race • Sexual orientation • gender identity

8. Biographical Characteristics Biographical Characteristics Personal Characteristics • Age: • Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality. • Gender: • Few differences between men and women that affect job performance. • Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself): • Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more culture-based than race-based.

9. Biographical Characteristics Biographical Characteristics Personal Characteristics Other Biographical Characteristics • Tenure: • People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied. • Religion: • Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-9/11 world. • Sexual orientation: • Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may). • Domestic partner benefits are important considerations. • gender identity: • Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.

10. Learning Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning - Operant Conditioning - Social-Learning Theory.

11. Learning Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Operant Conditioning A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Behaviorism Behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner. Social-Learning Theory People can learn through observation and direct experience. Attentional processes - Retention processes - Motor reproduction processes - Reinforcement processes.

12. Shaping: A Managerial Tool Shaping Behavior Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response Key Concepts Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. • The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

13. Shaping: A Managerial Tool Shaping Behavior Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcement Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning). Negative reinforcement Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs (learning). Extinction Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (“unlearning”). Punishment Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior (“unlearning”).

14. Shaping: A Managerial Tool Schedule of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated. Intermittent Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated. • Fixed interval schedule: Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. • Variable interval schedule: Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses. • Fixed ratio schedule: Reward given at amounts of output. • Variable ratio schedule: Reward given at a variable amounts of output.

15. Behavior modification (OB Mode) Behavior Modification (OB Mode) The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting. Steps Identify critical behaviors. Develop baseline data. Identify behavioral consequences. Develop and apply intervention. Evaluate performance improvement.

16. Behavior modification (OB Mode) Problems with Behavior Modification (OB Mode) OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings. OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve thinking and feeling. Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping behavior. Modern managers and OB theorists are using cognitive approaches to shaping behavior.

17. Global Implications Schedule of Reinforcement Intellectual Abilities Structures and measures of intelligence generalize across cultures Biographical Characteristics Not much evidence on the global relevance of the relationships described in this chapter. Countries do vary dramatically in their biographical composition. Learning Again, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot generalize at this point

18. Chapter Checkup: Reinforcement Theory When professors give random quizzes or take random attendance, students often complain that they are adults, old enough to make their own decisions, and should therefore not be required to come to class. How do you reconcile this argument with what we know about reinforcement theory? Discuss with a classmate. • What kind of reinforcement schedule are these professors using? Would a different schedule be preferable? If so, which one?. • Recall and write down the three criteria that indicate learning has occurred. Do you think that learning, according to these criteria, really occurs as a result of a one semester college class? Discuss with a neighbor. • What kinds of things would you recommend to a college professor to increase the likelihood of students learning all class material? Use theories from the text to frame your answer.