“Peace is not merely a distant goal that we seek, but a means by which we arrive at that goal.”

1. “Peace is not merely a distant goal that we seek, but a means by which we arrive at that goal.” • Martin Luther King Jr. The chicken is the closest living relative of the T-Rex.

2. The French Revolution 1789-1799 The Radical Stage

4. The Legislative Assembly Takes Charge: October 1, 1791 [01:27]

5. The Problems of the New Legislature • Severe Economic Troubles • Catholics Strongly Opposed the Rule of the Legislative Assembly. • The King of France had been secretly trying to obtain military support. • All of these problems served to undermine the new government.

6. Solutions? • August 10, 1792, Jacobin insurgents supported by a new revolutionary Paris Commune imprisoned the King and Queen, suspended the monarchy, and took control of the national government. • On September 20, 1792 the Jacobins established a new de facto government (The National Convention 1792-1795), abolished the monarchy, wrote a new constitution, and declared France a republic.

7. The Storming of the Tuileries Palace

8. Why? • The new Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) was unable to effectively handle France’s problems, especially in concern with the war with Austria and controlling the government. • Austria and its allies were attempting to reinstate the French monarchy.

10. Who were the Jacobins? • The Jacobins were radicalized revolutionaries • The Jacobin efforts were made in attempt to establish more radical components in the government.

11. The Beginnings of Radicalization • After the establishment of the National Convention by the Jacobins in 1792, the radicals viewed Louis as a conspirator with the enemies of France. • Louis was executed by guillotine on January 21, 1792. Marie Antoinette would follow him on October 16, 1792.

12. Execution of Louis XVI

13. The Beginnings of Radicalization • After the execution of Louis, the war was going badly and counter-revolutionary movements began in some areas of France. • The Jacobins in the National Convention seized this opportunity to gain complete control of the French Parliament. • Once in control, the Jacobins became increasingly more radical and used the Committee of Public Safety as a means to control counter-revolutionary actions.

14. The Committee of Public Safety • Came under control of Maximilien Robespierre. • Under Robespierre, the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793-94). • The brutal suppression of counter-revolutionary actions by the Jacobins created the most radical stage of the Revolution.

15. "The Reign of Terror": Spring, 1793 - Summer, 1794 [03:41]

16. The Reign of Terror 1793-1794 • Liberté? • Égalité? • Fraternité?

17. The Reign of Terror 1793-1794 • Known as the Jacobin Dictatorship. • 18,000 met their deaths by the guillotine or other methods for counter-revolutionary sentiments. • Trials by the Revolutionary Tribunals for counter-revs. were both unfair and unjust: 9 out of 10 people were sentenced to death. • The motivation for the Terror was due to radical politics and fear of the invading foreign armies.

18. The Reign of Terror 1793-1794 • Despite violence and radical governmental practices, the Jacobins were able to accomplish: -They avoided military defeat. - Able to enact democratic reforms. • However, as Jacobin power began to wane at the end of the Terror due to unpopular actions, another political group who had survived the Terror, the Giorndists, rose to power in the government and expelled and executed the Jacobins.

20. The Directory (1795-1799) and the rise of Napoleon • The Giorndists established a new constitution known as the Directory which created the first bicameral legislature in France. • However, due to mistrust that had grown over the past few years, the Girondists reversed many democratic reforms in the Directory enacted by the Jacobins, and it caused the government to function ineffectively.

21. The Directory (1795-1799) and the rise of Napoleon • The military was seen as the last strong and stable part of France due to their ability to suppress internal riots and counter-revolutionary activities. • With the exasperation of the French public with ineffective governments, the French people began to desire a strong leader over a weak government. • The ambitious and successful general, Napoleon Bonaparte, used that sentiment, his admirable reputation, and governmental support to stage a coup and seized power in France, thusly ending the Rev.

22. “To love is to risk not being loved in return. To hope is to risk pain. To try is to risk failure, but risk must be taken because the greatest hazard in life is to risk nothing.” “Go.” is the shortest complete sentence in the English language.

24. The Directory and Napoleon's Rise to Power: October, 1795 - November, 1799 [01:44]

25. The Dictatorship Begins: Napoleon Becomes Emperor of France [05:30]

26. Napoleon’s Reforms • Restructured and streamlined the government using military organization. • Brought the education system under government control which created better educational opportunities for French students. • He created the Bank of France and required everyone to pay taxes to relieve France’s debt.

27. Napoleon’s Reforms • Made peace with and reopened the Catholic Church alongside religious toleration for all. • Created the Napoleonic Code: • Abolished the confusing and contradictory feudal and royal laws. • Based on Enlightenment ideas (equality, religious toleration, etc.). • However, the state was above the individual (restrictions on the press, women lost rights gained during the Revolution, etc.).

30. Napoleon’s Mistake • June 23, 1812 Napoleon leads 691,501 men into Russia. • Initially, Napoleon defeats the Russian army and pushes into Moscow, however, the deserted city was set afire by Russian arsonists. • While Napoleon is waiting for the Czar to surrender, winter sets in (Czar used this as a strategy to force Napoleon to retreat).

32. Napoleon’s Mistake • During the forced march back to Paris, the Russians launch a continuous attack against the French. • With the harsh winter and Russian attacks, only 10,000 of Napoleon’s forces survived. • After this disastrous defeat, all of Napoleon’s enemies declare war against France and exile him to the island of Elbe.

33. Tchaikovsky’s 1812 Overture • Was written in commemoration of the unsuccessful French invasion of Russia. • This work is one of less than ten works that use guns and cannons in their score. • http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/classical/tchaikovsky/audio/tchaikovsky_index.shtml • 14:44

34. Exile and Return: The Battle of Waterloo [04:34]

35. In the Wake of Waterloo, 1815 • The French Army was decisively defeated. • Napoleon was place under house arrest on the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic where he died in 1821 at the age of 51.

37. In the Wake of Waterloo, 1815 • The Congress of Vienna, 1815: a desire for peace. • Overseen by Austria’s Prince Klemens von Metternich who called for a return to a pre- French Revolutionary Europe: restoration of land, monarchies, and balance of power in continental Europe.

38. The Concert of Europe

39. In the Wake of Waterloo, 1815 • The diplomats responsible for most of the agreements made at the Congress were reactionaries: people who opposed change and wanted to return things to the way they had been prior to the Fr. Rev. (absolute monarchies). • The reactionaries hoped to put a stop to liberalism: an influential political philosophy in the 1800s based on the ideals of the Enlighten-ment and democratic reforms of the Fr. Rev.

40. In the Wake of Waterloo, 1815 • The liberals were nationalistic and were calling for democratic rule in their countries. • The reactionaries knew that nationalistic desire for independence, democratic rule, and national unity could lead to Revolution. • In order to prevent nationalistic revolutions, the Quadruple Alliance (Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) was formed to enforce the agreements made during the Congress of Vienna.

41. Napoleon’s Legacy • Although he did not allow true representative government, he secured the opportunity for the ideals of the French Revolution to spread throughout Europe. • He created uniform standards for government, taxation, education, agriculture, and industry.