Anatomy Chapters 2-4: Chemistry, Biology, Cytology, and Histology

1. Anatomy Chapters 2-4: Chemistry, Biology, Cytology, and Histology Slides by Coach Murray Images: Various Sources Listed Within

2. Chemistry – Chapter 2 • Describe basic atomic structure • Distinguish between chemical bond types • Contrast inorganic and organic chemistry • Name, identify and describe the structure of the 4 major organic macromolecules • Classify examples of organic molecules by their type

3. Atoms and Atomic Structure pg27 • Matter is anything that has mass and volume • Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter • Atoms are composed of subatomic particles: • Protons - positive, located in the nucleus • Neutron – neutral, located in the nucleus • Electrons – negative, located in orbitals/clouds surrounding the nucleus

4. Chemical Bonds pg30-4 • Molecules want to be stable in nature • On way they become stable is by having full outermost orbital of electrons • Bonding is one way to accomplish this. • 2 major/important kinds of bonds are ionic and covalent bonds

5. Chemical Bonds (Continued) • Ionic Bonds • Ions – positively or negatively charged atoms • Ionic bonds – are formed when ions (single or polyatomic cations(+ions) or anions(-ions)) gain or lose electrons to/from other atoms. Aka a transfer of electrons. • Covalent bonds • occur when molecules share electrons.

6. Chemical Bonds (Continued) • Polar bonds – weak covalent bond resulting from an unequal charge distribution • Hydrogen bonds – a type of polar bond between water molecules created when the slightly positive charge of the H of one water molecule is attracted to the slight negative charge of the O on another water molecule • Results – gives water many unique properties like • Cohesion – stick to each other • Capillary Action – rises into narrow tubes (capillaries) • Surface Tension

7. Inorganic vs. Organic Chemistry • Inorganic Chemistry pg37 • Nutrients and compouds that do no contain C and H as the main strucutre • Organic Chemistry pg42 • C based compounds containing H, O, and N • Why do we study? - They occur again and again in very different types of biological structures of humans

8. Organic Chemistry • There are numerous of organic molecules, we will limit our focus to 4 categories of macromolecules (aka biomolecules) • All are polymers with repeating subunits. They are: • Carbohydrates – pg42-44 • Proteins – pg 49-53 • Lipids – pg 44-48 • Nucleic Acids – pg 54-6 • We need to identify the major parts of the subunits, describe the structure, and name a few important examples

9. 4 Macromolecules Explained Carbohydrates (Complex) – a polymers of monosaccharides and disaccharides linked together by a dehydration reaction and arranged in chains, branched chains. They are broken down by hydrolysis. • Example(s): • Glucose – a monosaccharide • Glycogen - complex

10. 4 Macromolecules Explained Proteins – are amino acids linked by a peptide bond called polypeptides (the primary structure) folded into complex 3-D shape that determines it function Secondary structures: α-helix and β-pleated sheets • Examples: • Enzymes – speed up chemical reactions • Muscle – actin and myosin fibers • Hair and nails – dead, keratinized cells

11. Image of 3-D protein structure (Wikipedia)

12. 4 Macromolecules Explained Lipids - are composed of long non-polar fatty acid tails/chains linked to a larger, polar molecule. These “tails” are long strings of hydrocarbons. Are consumed or made in the body (smooth ER) Individual chains can be unsaturated, monosaturated, or polysaturated • Examples: Steroids, Fat, Wax

13. Complex Lipids (wikipedia)

14. 4 Macromolecules Explained Nucleic Acids – made of nucleotides linked by a sugar and phosphate backbone. Nucleotides are composed of phosphate, sugar, and a nitrogen base. • DNA – nucleotides linked together by their complimentary nitrogenous base pairs in a double helix shape. Base pairs are Adenine-Thymine and Cytosine-Guanine. Sugar is deoxyribose. • RNA – nucleotides with base pairs exposed in a single helix. Thymine (T) replaced with U (uracil). Sugar is ribose.

15. DNA and RNA (wikipedia)

16. Cells – Cytology - Chapter 3 • Identify cell structures and cell organelles • Explain the function of key cell structures • Name and explain the events of the cell life cycle and mitosis

17. Basic Cell Structure – Biology Review • Cells vary greatly in size, structure, appearance • 3 main parts going outside to in: • Plasma (cell) membrane • Cytoplasm • Nucleus • Make-up/function of 3 main parts above: • Phospholipid bilayer - selectively permeability • Cytosol - where cell activities metabolism occurs • Nuclear membrane/nucleolus – control center of cell

18. Organelles – pg 64-5 Figure and Table 3-1 • There are many, we will focus on 8 – look at the function in the table and your cell concept map • 1. Golgi Apparatus/Body • 2. Mitochondria • 3. ER – smooth and rough • 4. Lysosomes • 5. Vessicles • 6. Centrosome • 7. Microtubules & Microfilaments • 8. Nucleus/Nucleolus

19. Organelles – pg 65 Table 3-1 • There are many, we will focus on 8 – look at the function in the table and your cell concept map • 1. Sorts/transports proteins/other products • 2. ATP synthesis by cellular respiration • 3. (S) Lipid/carbohydrate synthesis and (R) protein • 4. destroy particles, microorganisms, damaged cells using enzymes • 5. transport substances in/out of cell in small sacs • 6. forms spindle for reproduction • 7. involved in movement & maintain shape of cell • 8. Control center/makes ribosomes

20. Other Important Structures – pg 70-72 • Cilia – short hair-like structures on the cell surface to aid movement • Microvilli – short finger-like projections on the cell surface which increase the surface and aid in digestion • Ribosomes – (in cytoplasm or on rough.E.R.) – create proteins from the code of RNA

21. Cell Transport • How do we get substances through the selectively permeable cell membrane? • Passive Transport (with the concentration gradient so no energy is required) OR Active Transport (against the concentration gradient so energy is required)

22. Cell Transport – pg 85-94 • Types of Passive – high concentration to low • Diffusion –permeable molecules move through the membrane • Osmosis – is the diffusion of water • Facilitated Diffusion – movement using transmembrane proteins • Types of Active – low concentration to high • Endocytosis – process which engulfs particles and brings them into the cell • Exocytosis – process which expels particles out of the cell

23. Cell Life Cycle and Mitosis pg 95 • Life cycle and mitosis overview • Interphase • Mitosis – Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase • Cytokinesis • Refer to your worksheets or book to reference key events which occur in each

24. Tissues – Histology - Chapter 4 • Identify and classify the 5 categories of tissues given descriptions and examples • Name the type of tissue for key areas of the body • Contrast the 6 kinds of epithelial tissue

25. 4 Categories of Tissues pg 107 • Tissue: a group of cells which share a common function(s) • Here are the four major categories of tissues • Epithelial • Connective • Muscle • Nervous

26. Epithelial Tissue see pg111 for images • Covers interior/exterior of the body, reproduce rapidly – not just “skin” • General Function: protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, sensory, perception • 6 subcategories – classified on shape and layers • Simple squamous • Simple cuboidal • Simple columnar • Stratified squamous • Psuedostratified columnar • Transitional

27. Epithelial Tissue Continued • More details on each 6 subcategories • Simple squamous – single, thin, and flattened layer • Function: diffusion and filtration • Location: capillary walls, air sacs of lungs (alveoli) • Simple cuboidal – single layer, cube shaped • Function: secretion and absorption • Location: lines kidney, ducts of glands, surface of ovaries • Simple columnar – single layer, nuclei near base membrane, having goblet cells to secrete mucus • Location: digestive tract, uterus

28. Epithelial Tissue Continued • More details on each 6 subcategories 4. Stratified squamous – thick, multi-layered • Protection • Location: lining of mouth, external part of body 5. Psuedostratified columnar – look layered but are single columnar, multi-nucleate, usuallylined w/cilia • Function: cilia-aided movement, secretion • Location: trachea, tubes of reproductive system 6. Transitional – thick layered, stretchable cuboidal cells • Location: bladder

29. Connective Tissue pg 118-125 • Most abundant tissue in the human body • Varies greatly in appearance/function • Description: Scattered cells and fibers w/lots of intercellular matrix and good blood supply • Function: binds structures together, provides support, protection, framework, fills space, stores fat, produces blood cells, fights infection, and helps repair tissue

30. Connective Tissue (Continued) • All Connective Tissue share 3 common aspects: • Composed of specialize cells • Extracellular protein fibers • Ground substance • Most but not all have matrix • Matrix is made of #2 and #3 above • Accounts for most volume of connective tissue

31. Connective Tissue (Continued) • Overview of Categories/Examples of Connective Tissue • Loose Connective – pg 121-2 • Areolar • Adipose • Reticular • Dense Connective (Collagenous) – pg123 • Tendons • Ligaments • Aponeurosis • Fluid Connective – pg 125 • Blood • Lymph • Supporting Connective • Cartilage (hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage) • Bone

32. Loose Connective pg 121-2 • Examples, Functions, Locations • Areolar – separates skin from deeper structures • Location: body-wide underneath skin • Function: protection • Adipose – deep to skin of buttocks, breasts • Function: energy storage, insulation, cushion • Reticular – framework for kidney, lymph node, & bone marrow

33. Dense Connective pg 123 • All made of collagen fibers parallel to each other • Examples, Functions, Locations • Tendons – connect muscles to bone • Ligaments – bone to bone, stabilizes internal organs • Aponeurosis – tendon like sheets, attaches to broad flat muscles or skeleton • Lower back, soles, palms

34. Fluid Connective (Continued) • Examples, Functions, Locations • Blood – carries O2/CO2, ”food” • matrix= plasma • Components: RBCs, WBCs (leukocytes), platelets • Found in arteries, veins, and capillaries • Lymph – fluid of the tissues concentrated in glands and nodes of lymphatic system containing WBCs which monitor “health” of tissues • circulates from tissue, to lymphatic system, to cardiovascular and back

35. Supporting Connective • Cartilage • Hyaline (most common) – a more stiff cartilage • nose, trachea/bronchial tubes, sternum, b/w ribs, • Elastic – has lots of elastic fibers w/in for flexibility • ear, epiglottis • Fibrocartilage – stops bone to bone contact • – ball joints of hip, arm, discs of backbone • Bone – matrix is 2/3 calcium carbonate, 1/3 collagen fibers • Makes bone remarkably strong but flexible • Made of osteocytes • Osteocytes found near blood vessels • Arranged in ring pattern

36. Muscle Tissue pg132 • Specialized for contraction • Function: movement of body parts/organs • Subcategories: • Striated – skeletal muscles, voluntary • Elongated, bundled into a fascicles, “striped” • Key parts: actin & myosin anchored to sarcomere • Smooth – involuntary • Line hollow organs of digestive system, move in wavelike fashion • Key parts: fusiform, has nucleus, actin & myosin anchored cell membrane • Cardiac – involuntary and voluntary

37. Striated/Skeletal Muscle Tissue Overview (wikipedia)

38. Smooth Muscle Structure Overview (wikipedia)

39. Nervous • Found in brain and spinal cord (Central N.S.) • Also in nerves extending from CNS (Peripheral N.S.) • Do not typically regenerate • 2 kinds of nervous tissue: • Nuerons – transmit eletrochemical signals • Nueroglia – support/protect of neurons, provide nutrients to nuerons, remove old neurons

40. Typical Neuron • Neuroglia – nearby, similar looking non-neuron helpers • Neuron – generic image (wikipedia)

41. Summary of Key Topics • Inorganic Chemistry – basic atomic structure, types of bonds pg37-8 • Organic Chemistry – 4 macromolecules pgs 42-55 • Cells – structure, organelles, organelle function and identification • Cell Life Cycle and Mitosis • Tissues – 4 Major categories of tissues and subcategories, descriptions of each category, key examples in each

42. Key Tables and Figures • Fig 2-20 Protein Structure • Fig 2-23 – Structure of Nucleic Acids • Table 2-7 – Top portion – RNA/DNA Comparison • Table 2-8 – Organic Compounds • Fig 3-1 and Table 3-1 Cell Anatomy & Organelles • Fig 3-10 The Nucleus • Fig 3-11 The Organization of DNA w/in the Nucleus • Fig 3-17 Osmotic Flow – 3 types of tonicity • Fig 3-25 IPMATC – Cell Life Cycle Overview

43. Key Tables and Figures • Fig 4-3 and Fig 4-4 – Squamous, Cuboidal, and Transitional Epithelia • Fig 4-11 Dense Connective Tissues • Fig 4-12 Elements of Blood • Fig 4-15 Bone • Fig 4-18 Muscle Tissue – 3 types • Fig 4-19 Neural Tissue – nuerons and neuroglia