Sisters of the Soil:

1. Sisters of the Soil: The Work of the Woman’s Land Army of America during World War I

3. Rose Hayden-Smith University of California UC ANR/UC Santa Barbara Food and Society Policy Fellow March 2007 Updated 5/2008

4. The Seeds of Change “The war, in fact, has shaken the very foundations of the old Victorian beliefs in the limited sphere of women to atoms.” --- Helen Fraser

5. War Changes Things…World War Iproved extraordinarily transformationalfor theUnited States…

6. Concerns about the food system were central to this transformation

10. “Food Will Win the War”Government Concerns/Goals: • Prevent civil unrest • Alleviate agricultural labor shortages • Feed mobilizing troops • Feed starving European allies through American food conservation AND increased production efforts

11. Government Concerns/Goals: • Encourage local production and consumption to reduce the food mile and save trains for transport of food and materiel • Mobilize and unify Americans around food conservation and production efforts, particularly GARDENING

12. Uncle Sam says GARDEN

14. Food is Ammunition

15. Sow the Seeds of Victory!

16. Three Programs • U.S School Garden Army • National War Garden Commission • Woman’s Land Army of America • Linked efforts • All associated with a government agency

17. National War Garden Commission

18. United States School Garden Army

19. Woman’s Land Army

20. What was the WLAA? • The WLAA enabled nearly 20,000 urban women to enter America’s ag sector to work as ordinary wage laborers between 1917-21. The majority were college-educated women. • The WLAA challenged in fundamental ways the social customs and mores of American society, and was vital to securing woman’s rights and suffrage in the United States.

21. Women in Ag Previously • The work of rural women hidden • WLAA fundamentally different • Challenged in a very direct way proscriptions on woman’s work, woman’s role, woman’s capabilities • There was resistance to this effort

22. Cross-Fertilization:Precursors • Gardening within domestic sphere. • Gilded Age: enormous interest in horticulture in both Europe/America. • Domestic sphere construct stretched to accommodate women as para-professionals in horticulture (personal expertise to prof practice).

23. Cross-Fertilization:Precursors • Much work done within context of reform. • Legislation (Morrill, Hatch, Adams, Smith-Lever). • Women’s horticultural schools. • Women’s civic organizations (WNFGA). • Atlantic Crossings.

24. Cross-Fertilization: Precursors • Imprint of the Progressive Era. • Emphasis on scientific agriculture. • Highly ordered. • Progressive interest in relationship between urban and rural spheres. • British land army experience. • Helen Fraser…advancement of woman’s rights.

27. “Shaken the very foundations…to atoms” • The WLA represented a challenge to traditional notions of separate spheres and traditional roles. • It was viewed by many as an opportunity to advance an agenda of woman’s rights in America = to British experience. • One of the organizing groups was the Woman’s Suffrage Party.

29. Why Did Women Participate? • Patriotism • Altruism, outlet for reform • Educational and training opportunities • Economic opportunities • Adventure • To promote woman’s rights • Key: Women interrupted education and life plans to participate!

30. Who Were They? • Mostly white, urban and middle class • Young • Majority college-educated • Most unmarried • Some trade workers (impt for class laboratory) • Leaders: professionals, educators, reformers, lots of cross-reference with suffrage movement

31. “Every morning, when you started off, it was with a feeling of adventure – no telling what might happen before you got home. No one minded taking chances.”- Helen Kennedy Stevens land worker, Feb 1918

32. Building a Cold Frame: Overview of the WLA • Organized in 1917, immediately after war declared on Germany. • Organized by multiple groups: WNFGA, Ambler staff, Woman’s Suffrage Party, State Council of Defense, Garden Club of America, YMCA. • WLA 15,000-20,000 in number; only a portion of all female land workers.

33. Cold Frame • Centralized, national structure, minimally staffed, but what was staffed was important • Staffed entirely by women • Entry into states via councils of defense.

34. Cold Frame • Organized locally by community-based organizations, institutions, groups, in collaboration. • Funded by other women! • Relationships, relationships, relationships.

35. What Was Life Like for a Farmerette? • Unit system, para-military structure. • Many of most successful units organized at elite women’s college…reform ethic, woman’s rights there already. • Systematic training, communal living, standardized work hours and wages, organized labor deployment.

36. What Was Life Like? • Camps (tents, houses). • Deployed into smaller work units to a variety of farming operations. • Unit manager negotiated wages for entire group. • Health and nutrition key. • Moral uplift and education.

37. What Was Life Like? • All-women communities. • Fun and recreation…singing, swimming, “husky harvesting.” • National organization published a newsletter…lots of cultural expressions and forms.

38. What Was Life Like? • Training and education key • Not an unskilled ag labor force • Extension models utilized • Civic orgs provided training as well • At colleges (UC Farm at Davisville, etc.)

39. What Did Farmerettes Do? • Tasks…fruit picking, grading, packing; hoeing; truck gardening; grain silo work; trucking; thinning, raising, harvesting vegetables; hay making; general farming; equipment operation; field work; dairying; poultry farming; livestock management; tobacco harvesting; timbering; road building.

40. How Were Farmerettes Received? • Encouraged by Teddy Roosevelt, Charles Lathrop Pack, Progressive Leaders • Mixed reception by govt officials • Press extremely positive • LOVED by farmers (and wives!) • But concerns existed…

42. Ventura County • While more prevalent north of the Tehachapis and in LA Basin, a WLA crew brought in the fruit harvest at the Philbrick’s farm in Ojai. Local newspaper reports were highly complimentary of the “Farmerettes.”

43. Statistics • By summer 1918, approximately 1000 units in operation in at least 21 states. • Many units affiliated with elite women’s colleges: Vassar, Barnard, Mills. • Some affiliated with public ag schools: Cornell, UC. • High wage states: CA, NY • Low wage states: PA, VA

44. Statistics • Very strong in West, Northeast; middling strength in Midwest; didn’t flourish in the South. • In West and Northeast, many leaders also affiliated with suffrage movement and other reform efforts.

45. Wages & Working Conditions • Great sensitivity re: labor relations in US during this period • Enormous issues around race and immigration • Ag labor shortage • WLA provided a plausible response to these challenges…

46. Wages and Working Conditions • National organization somewhat conflicted (larger sensitivity to labor issues in US). • Regional variations. • Harder work = higher wage. • California workers demanded and received higher wages than their peers. • Awareness by some in WLA that they were workers.

47. California • One of first states to mobilize. • Growers took laborers seriously – built housing (Vacaville – AMAZING!) • Women begin to be viewed as farmers in own right (court decision)

48. California • No. California unit published manifesto, secured favorable working conditions. • UC contributed to success in impt ways. • Katherine Phillips Edson and other reformers led the way.

49. Recruitment • World War I standard: infant mass media industry. • Posters…”until the boys come back” • Speeches… • Articles… • Colleges provided incentives… • Media charmed by “farmerettes”.

50. Hoeing the Tough Row: Resistance • Women’s suitability for hard physical labor questioned repeatedly. • Imperil future health (read: child bearing capability?) • Regional resistance. • Some of Wilson’s administration doubted.