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Chapter 1-15

Chapter 1-15. The Big Ideas – E2 - I2. 1. Evolution – the process of evolution drives the diversity and unity of life. 2. Energy – biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.

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Chapter 1-15

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  1. Chapter 1-15

  2. The Big Ideas – E2 - I2 1. Evolution – the process of evolution drives the diversity and unity of life. 2. Energy – biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis. 3. Information – living systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life processes. 4. Interactions – biological systems interact and these systems and their interactions possess complex properties.

  3. Carbon • Bonds covalently 4 times • Carbohydrates • Lipids • Proteins • Nucleic Acids • Isomers Elements Monomer ID them Uses/Roles Examples Structure/function relation Dehydration vs. hydrolysis

  4. Functional Groups • Hydroxyl • Amine • Carbonyl • Carboxyl • Sulfhydryl • Phosphate Sulfhydryl

  5. Cells • Microscopes • Cell fractionation • Cell Size • Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic • Animal vs. Plant

  6. Surface Area and Volume Math Question • What is the SA/V for this cell? Round your answer to the nearest hundredths.

  7. Answer SA = 4πr2 = 4(3.14)52 = 314 Volume of a sphere= 4/3 πr3 = 4/3 (3.14)53 =523.33 SA/V=314/523.33 =.60

  8. Endomembrane System • Rough ER • Smooth ER • Golgi Apparatus • Nucleus • Nuclear envelope • Nucleolus

  9. Organelles • Ribosome • Lysosome • Peroxisome • Vacuole • Chloroplast • Mitochondria

  10. Cytoskeleton • Centrosomes • Centrioles • Cilia • Flagella • Basal body • Microtubules • Intermediate filaments • Microfilaments

  11. Cell Surface • Cell wall • Extracellular matrix • Intercellular junctions • Plasmodesmata/gap junctions • Tight junctions • desmosomes Gap Desmosomes Tight

  12. During an investigation of a freshwater lake, an AP Biology student discovers a previously unknown microscopic organism. Further study shows that the unicellular organism is eukaryotic. Identify FOUR organelles that should be present in the eukaryotic organism and describe the function of each organelle. (b) Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotes. However, prokaryotes must perform many of the same functions as eukaryotes. For THREE of the organelles identified in part (a), explain how prokaryotic cells carry out the associated functions. (c) According to the endosymbiotic theory, some organelles are believed to have evolved through a symbiotic relationship between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Describe THREE observations that support the endosymbiotic theory.

  13. Membrane structure and Function • Fluid mosaic model • Phospholipids • Glycolipid • Glycoprotein • Intergral proteins • Peripheral proteins • Transport proteins

  14. Diffusion • Definition • Factors that effect diffusion • Problems: • The molar concentration of a sugar solution in an open beaker has been determined to be 0.3M. Calculate the solute potential at 27 oC. Round your answer to the nearest tenths. Solute potential= –iCRT i = The number of particles the molecule will make in water; for NaCl this would be 2; for sucrose or glucose, this number is 1 C = Molar concentration (from your experimental data) R = Pressure constant = 0.0831 liter bar/mole K T = Temperature in degrees Kelvin = 273 + °C of solution

  15. Answer • Solute potential= –iCRT -i= 1 C= 0.3 R = Pressure constant = 0.0831 T= 27 +273=300K Solute concentration= -7.5

  16. Osmosis • Definition • Hypotonic, Hypertonic, Isotonic • Water potential • Aquaporins • Osmoregulation • If ΨP = 0.3 MPa and ΨS = -0.45 MPa, the resulting Ψ is • a. +0.75 MPa. • b. -0.75 MPa. • c. -0.15 MPa. • d. +0.15 MPa.

  17. Other types of transport • Facilitated diffusion • Active transport • Endocytosis • Exocytosis • Pinocytosis • Phagocytosis • Receptor mediated endocytosis

  18. Energy and the Cell • Metabolism • 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics • Kinetic vs. Potential energy • Endergonic vs. Exergonic • Energy coupling • ATP • Phosphorylation

  19. Enzymes • Activation energy • Active site • Induced fit • Things that effect the functioning of an enzyme • Temperature • pH • Concentration • Competitive or noncompetitive inhibition • Cofactors • Allosteric regulation • Cooperativity

  20. Cellular Respiration • C6H12O6 + 6O2 ---> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP • Redox reactions • Glycolysis • Krebs • Electron transport • Anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

  21. Energy Harvest Phase

  22. Order of electron carriers: FMN Fe-SQ Cyt bFe-SCyt c1Cyt cCyt aCyt a3

  23. Microbes produce acetone or methanol

  24. An agricultural biologist was evaluating two newly developed varieties of wheat as potential crops. In an experiment, seedlings were germinated on moist paper towels at 20ºC for 48 hours. Oxygen consumption of the two-day-old seedlings was measured at different temperatures. The data are shown in the graph below. Calculate the rates of oxygen consumption in mL/min for each variety of wheat at 7°C and at 17°C. Show your work (including your setup and calculation). (b) Explain the relationship between metabolism and oxygen consumption. Discuss the effect of temperature on metabolism for each variety of seedlings. (c) In a second experiment, variety A seedlings at both temperatures were treated with a chemical that prevents NADH from being oxidized to NAD+. Predict the most likely effect of the chemical on metabolism and oxygen consumption of the treated seedlings. Explain your prediction.

  25. The element carbon is contained in all organic compounds. Discuss the role of photosynthesis and cellular respiration in carbon cycling in the biosphere. (b) For THREE of the following, predict and explain the effect on the carbon cycle if: -- decomposers were absent -- deforestation occurred -- volcanic dust accumulated in the atmosphere -- the average ocean temperature increased (c) Explain how increased CO2 in the atmosphere results in greater acidification of oceans and describe the effect on marine organisms. Include in your discussion TWO examples of how human activity can increase atmospheric CO2.

  26. Photosynthesis • 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + ltnrg C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O • Light reaction • Cyclic electron vs. noncyclic electron flow • Dark reaction • Carbon fixation • Reduction • Regeneration

  27. C4 • Uses a different enzyme to initially capture CO2 • Separates CO2 capture from carbon fixation • Still uses C3 Ps to make sugar, but only does so in the bundle sheath cells. • CAM • Open stomata at night to take in CO2. • The CO2 is stored as a C4 acid. • During the day, the acid is broken down and CO2 is fixed into sugar. • Still uses C3 Ps to make sugar. • Slow growth • C3/Photorespiration • When Rubisco accepts O2 instead of CO2 as the substrate. • Generates no ATP. • Decreases Ps output by as much as 50%.

  28. Cell Communication • Reception • Direct signaling • Local signaling • Long distance • Transduction • Response

  29. Reception • Signal molecules • Receptor molecules • G-protein coupled • Tyrosine-kinase • Ion channels • Intracellular

  30. Signal Transduction • Amplification • Protein Kinase • Protein phosphatases • Secondary messengers

  31. Responses • Rearrange cytoskeleton • Transcription

  32. Cell Cycle • Cell Cycle • G1 , S , G2 • Checkpoints • G1 , G2 , M phase • Mitosis • Prophase • Metaphase • Anaphase • Telophase/Cytokinesis

  33. Meiosis • Diploid  Haploid • 2 divisions • Testicular/Ovarian cell to make sperm/egg • Independent assortment • Crossing over • Random fertilization • Mutations Increases variety

  34. 1. The cell cycle is fundamental to the reproduction of eukaryotic cells. Describe the phases of the cell cycle. (b) Explain the role of THREE of the following in mitosis or cytokinesis. Kinetochores Microtubules Motor proteins Actin filaments (c) Describe how the cell cycle is regulated and discuss ONE consequence of abnormal regulation

  35. Mendel Practice • Two heterozygotes produce 345 offspring • What is your expected phenotypic ratio? 3:1 • How many individuals are expected to have the dominant phenotype? 259 • How many individuals are expected to have the recessive phenotype? 86 • In this genetic crossAa x aathere are 714 offspring • How many individuals are expected to have the dominant phenotype? 357 • How many individuals are expected to have the recessive phenotype? 357

  36. Mendel Practice • In a dihybrid cross between two heterozygotes, if you have 360 offspring, what are your expected values? • Both dominant phenotypes 9/16 = .56 = 56% = 202 • One dominant; one recessive 3/16 = .19 = 19% = 68 • One recessive; one dominant 3/16 = .19 = 19% = 68 • Both recessive phenotypes 1/16 = .06 = 6% = 22

  37. Exceptions to Mendel • Incomplete dominance • Codominance • Sex-linked traits • Multiple alleles • Pleiotropy • Epistasis • Polygenic inheritance

  38. Chapter 15 highlights • Sex linked traits • examples • Seen more in males…why? • X-inactivation • Gene mapping using recombination frequency • Chromosomal Mutations • Nondisjunction, deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation

  39. Questions Part 1 Review Booklet • How do the unique chemical and physical properties of water make life on earth possible? • High specific Heat • Adhesion • Cohesion • Polarity

  40. What is the role of carbon in the diversity of life? • How do cells synthesize and breakdown macromolecules? • How do structures of biological molecules account for their function (carbs, proteins, lipids, and DNA)

  41. What are the similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? • What are the evolutionary relationships between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? • How does compartmentalization organize a cell’s functions? • How are the structures of the various subcellular organelles related to their function?

  42. How do organelles function together in cellular processes? • What is the current model of molecular architecture of membranes? • How do variations in this structure account for functional differences among membranes? • How does the structure of membranes provide for transport and recognition?

  43. What are various mechanisms by which substances can cross the membrane? • In osmosis and diffusion lab, how was osmosis measure in both living (cells/potatoes) and artificial (dialysis tubing)? • What was the independent variable in the dialysis bag part of the lab? • Dependent variable? • Control? • Controlled variables?

  44. What was the independent variable in the potato part of the lab? • Dependent variable? • Control? • Controlled variables?

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