The Indochina Wars, 1954-79

1. Young & Kent: International Relations since 1945 The Indochina Wars, 1954-79

2. South Vietnam 1954-61 Ngo Dinh Diem’s Regime: - October 1955, Emperor Bao Dai deposed - Diem is Catholic, authoritarian, backed by landlords and relying on military - Alienates Buddhists, ethnic minorities, peasants, liberals US involvement: - counter-insurgency expert Edward Lansdale helps Diem into power - $1 billion military aid under Eisenhower - July 1959, two US advisers killed

3. Diem and the Communists • US sees Diem as both anti-colonialist (opposed French) and anti-Communist • 1956-59 Diem’s anti-Communist campaign seems successful • 1959-61 sees Communist revival: • North recovers from war with French • North supported by China and USSR • Le Duan presses for guerrilla war • December 1960: National Liberation Front formed • February 1961: Military wing created

4. Kennedy and Vietnam • Seems to escalate US involvement • Number of advisers up from 685 in Jan 1961 to 17,000 in Nov 1963 • US support ‘strategic hamlets’ • Ap Bac (January 1963) shows weakness of South Vietnamese army • But there are limits to this • Attention focused on Laos crisis in 1961 • Accepted neutralization of Laos in 1962 • No US combat troops in Vietnam • Talked of lower troop levels before assassination

5. Johnson’s First Year • Johnson focused on US • Election year: poses as peace candidate • Not a foreign policy expert • Dream of ‘Great Society’ • Vietnam commitment remains • Kennedy’s Vice-President • Key advisers support war • Instability after overthrow of Diem • Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in August • November 1964: President in own right by a landslide

6. ‘LBJ’s war’? • Was President forced into war? • Anti-Communist tradition: containment • Previous commitments to South Vietnam • McNamara, Bundy and Rusk • Pressure from military • Withdrawal would mean South collapses • Or did he choose to fight • Truman let China fall in 1949 • North Vietnam communist in 1954 • Kennedy avoided war in Laos • Ball, Mansfield oppose escalation • President has final decision

7. 1965: America enters the war • February, Operation ‘Rolling Thunder’ • McNamara and Bundy press for US action • Sparked by Pleiku attack • Sustained bombing of North • Partly to boost morale of South • July, large deployment of combat troops • ‘Rolling Thunder’ did not deter North • Peace talks unlikely: North demands NLF political programme and end of bombing • First US combat troops sent in March

8. The War in 1965-67 • Military campaign • Conventional versus guerrilla war • Westmoreland’s attrition policy fails • Difficulties for US in fighting such a conflict • Peace feelers • Numerous initiatives • But US want South Vietnam independent • While Communists want reunification • International attitudes • USSR, Eastern Europe and China back North • US fears Chinese intervention if North invaded • Limited allied help for US

9. Tet 1968 • 30-31 January, widespread attacks • A defeat for Communists? • Around 35,000 front line troops killed • No uprising in South • Or for the US? • Many feel war ‘unwinnable’ • Reject request for large troop increase • LBJ’s 31 March announcement • Restrict bombing of North • Renew pressure for peace talks • Pulls out of Presidential election

10. US Policy under Nixon 1969-72 • Reject escalation or withdrawal • Military policies: • US troop withdrawals please US public • ‘Vietnamization’ makes up for US troops • Tough action to intimidate North: secret bombing of Cambodia • Invasions of Cambodia and Laos • Political-diplomatic steps: • Improve relations with USSR and China • Paris peace talks • Secret Kissinger talks with North

11. Achieving US withdrawal 1972-73 • Spring 1972, situation still uncertain: • US troop withdrawals reduce pressure on North to make concessions • Election year for Nixon • North launches major offensive • So what factors helped bring a deal? • ‘Spring Offensive’ fails • Détente and Opening to China progress • Key US concession: ‘ceasefire in place’ • ‘Christmas bombing’

12. Paris Accords: January 1973 • ‘Peace with Honour’? • Survival of the Thieu regime • US prisoners of war released • US can re-supply South Vietnamese forces • Or only a ‘decent interval’ until South Vietnam collapses? • US troops leave • No North Vietnamese withdrawal • ‘National Liberation Front’ given legitimacy • Conflict in Cambodia/Laos goes on

13. The Collapse of South Vietnam • Internal weaknesses • War in South Vietnam not ended in January 1973 • Inflation, lack of economic resources • Unpopular regime, low morale • Poor leadership: Thieu abandons northern provinces after North attacks (March 1975) • US weaknesses • Popular opposition to re-involvement • Congress forces end of US support for Cambodia (August 1973) • Watergate, fall of Nixon

14. Falling Dominoes? • 1975: apparent collapse of pro-US position in Southeast Asia • 16 April: Khmer Rouge take Phnom Penh • 30 April: Fall of Saigon after Thieu flees • 9 May: pro-US ministers thrown out of government in Laos • But this collapse is limited • Ford takes military action over ‘Mayaguez’ seizure • Pro-US regimes survive beyond Indochina: Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines

15. Communist Divisions 1975-79 • Rising Chinese-Vietnamese tension - historic rivalry: fear of Chinese power - Soviets influence in Vietnam after reunification: Nov 1978 friendship treaty - maltreatment of Chinese minority in Vietnam - December 1978: Vietnam invades Cambodia; China backs Pol Pot • February-April 1979: punitive Chinese invasion of Vietnam

16. Reconciliation • September 1988: Vietnamese troops withdrawn from Cambodia • May 1989: Deng and Gorbachev hold first Sino-Soviet summit since 1959 • September 1989: Chinese-Vietnamese border reopened • November 2000: Clinton becomes first President to visit reunified Vietnam