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Further Statistical Issues

Further Statistical Issues. Chapter 12. Last revision August 26, 2006, 2003. What We’ll Do . Random-number generation Generating random variates Nonstationary Poisson processes Variance reduction Sequential sampling Designing and executing simulation experiments. Backup material:

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Further Statistical Issues

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  1. Further Statistical Issues Chapter 12 Last revision August 26, 2006, 2003 Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  2. What We’ll Do ... • Random-number generation • Generating random variates • Nonstationary Poisson processes • Variance reduction • Sequential sampling • Designing and executing simulation experiments • Backup material: • Appendix C: A Refresher on Probability and Statistics • Appendix D: Arena’s Probability Distributions Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  3. f(x) 1 x 1 0 Random-Number Generators (RNGs) • Algorithm to generate independent, identically distributed draws from the continuous UNIF (0, 1) distribution • These are called random numbersin simulation • Basis for generating observations from all other distributions and random processes • Transform random numbers in a way that depends on the desired distribution or process (later in this chapter) • It’s essential to have a good RNG • There are a lot of bad RNGs — this is very tricky • Methods, coding are both tricky Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  4. The Nature of RNGs • Recursive formula (algorithm) • Start with a seed (or seed vector) • Do something weird to the seed to get the next one • Repeat … generate the same sequence • Will eventually repeat (cycle) … want long cycle length • Not really “random” as in unpredictable • Does this matter? Philosophically? Practically? • Want to “design” RNGs • Long cycle length • Good statistical properties (uniform, independent) -- tests • Fast • Streams (subsegments) – many and long (for variance reduction … later) • This is hard! Doing something weird isn’t enough Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  5. Linear Congruential Generators(LCGs) • The most common of several different methods • But not the one in Arena (though it’s related) … later • Generate a sequence of integers Z1, Z2, Z3, … via the recursion Zi = (a Zi–1 + c) (mod m) • a, c, and m are carefully chosen constants • Specify a seed Z0 to start off • “mod m” means take the remainder of dividing by m as the next Zi • All the Zi’s are between 0 and m – 1 • Return the ith “random number” as Ui = Zi / m Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  6. Example of a “Toy” LCG • Parameters m = 63, a = 22, c = 4, Z0 = 19: Zi = (22 Zi–1 + 4) (mod 63), seed with Z0 = 19 i 22 Zi–1+4 ZiUi 0 19 1 422 44 0.6984 2 972 27 0.4286 3 598 31 0.4921 4 686 56 0.8889 : : : : 61 158 32 0.5079 62 708 15 0.2381 63 334 19 0.3016 64 422 44 0.6984 65 972 27 0.4286 66 598 31 0.4921 : : : : • Cycling — will repeat forever • Cycle length £m • (could be << m depending • on parameters) • Pick mBIG • But that might not be enoughfor good statistical properties Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  7. Issues with LCGs • Cycle length: <m • Typically, m = 2.1 billion (= 231 – 1) or more • Which used to be a lot … more later • Other parameters chosen so that cycle length = m or m – 1 • Statistical properties • Uniformity, independence • There are many tests of RNGs • Empirical tests • Theoretical tests — “lattice” structure (next slide …) • Speed, storage — both are usually fine • Must be carefully, cleverly coded — BIG integers • Reproducibility — streams (long internal subsequences) with fixed seeds Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  8. Issues with LCGs (cont’d.) • “Regularity” of LCGs (and other kinds of RNGs): For the earlier “toy” LCG … • “Design” RNGs: dense lattice in high dimensions • Other kinds of RNGs — longer memory in recursion, combination of several RNGs Plot of Ui vs. i Plot of Ui+1 vs. Ui “Random Numbers Fall Mainly in the Planes” — George Marsaglia Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  9. Original (1983) Arena RNG • LCG with: m = 231 – 1 = 2,147,483,647 a = 75 = 16,807 c = 0 • Cycle length = m – 1 = 2.1  109 • Ten different automatic streams with fixed seeds • In its day, this was a good, well-tested generator in an efficient code • But current computer speed make this cycle length inadequate • Exhaust in 10 minutes on 2 GHz PC if we just generate • Can get this generator (not recommended) • Place a Seeds module (Elements panel) in your model Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  10. Zn / 4294967088 if Zn > 0 4294967087 / 4294967088 if Zn = 0 Un = Current Arena RNG • Uses some of the same ideas as LCG • Modulo division, recursive on earlier values • But is not an LCG • Combines two separate component generators • Recursion involves more than just the preceding value • Combined multiple recursive generator (CMRG) An = (1403580 An-2 – 810728 An-3) mod 4294967087 Bn = (527612 Bn-1 – 1370589 Bn-3) mod 4294944443 Zn = (An – Bn) mod 4294967087 Seed = a six-vector of first three An’s, Bn’s Two simultaneous recursions Combine the two The next random number Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  11. The Current (2000) Arena RNG – Properties • Extremely good statistical properties • Good uniformity in up to 45-dimensional hypercube • Cycle length = 3.1  1057 • To cycle, all six seeds must match up • On 2 GHz PC, would take 2.8  1040 millennia to exhaust • Under Moore’s law, it will be 216 years until this generator can be exhausted in a year of nonstop computing • Only slightly slower than old LCG • And RNG is usually a minor part of overall computing time Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  12. The Current (2000) Arena RNG – Streams and Substreams • Automatic streams and substreams • 1.8  1019 streams of length 1.7  1038 each • Each stream further divided into 2.3  1015 substreams of length 7.6  1022 each • 2 GHz PC would take 669 million years to exhaust a substream • Default stream is 10 (historical reasons) • Also used for Chance-type Decide module • To use a different stream, append its number after a distribution’s parameters • For example, EXPO(6.7, 4) to use stream 4 • When using multiple replications, Arena automatically advances to next substream in each stream for the next replication • Helps synchronize for variance reduction ... later Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  13. Generating Random Variates • Have: Desired input distribution for model (fitted or specified in some way), and RNG (UNIF (0, 1)) • Want: Transform UNIF (0, 1) random numbers into “draws” from the desired input distribution • Method: Mathematical transformations of random numbers to “deform” them to the desired distribution • Specific transform depends on desired distribution • Details in online Help about methods for all distributions • Do discrete, continuous distributions separately Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  14. –2 0 3 Generating from Discrete Distributions • Example: probability mass function • Divide [0, 1] • Into subintervals of length 0.1, 0.5, 0.4 • Generate U ~ UNIF (0, 1) • See which subinterval it’s in • Return X = corresponding value Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  15. Discrete Generation: Another View • Plot cumulative distribution function; generate U and plot on vertical axis; read “across and down” • Inverting the CDF • Equivalent to earlier method Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  16. Generating from Continuous Distributions • Example: EXPO (5) distribution Density (PDF) Distribution (CDF) • General algorithm (can be rigorously justified): 1. Generate a random number U ~ UNIF(0, 1) 2. Set U = F(X) and solve for X = F–1(U) • Solving analytically for X may or may not be simple (or possible) • Sometimes use numerical approximation to “solve” Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  17. Generating from Continuous Distributions (cont’d.) • Solution for EXPO (5) case: Set U = F(X) = 1 – e–X/5 e–X/5 = 1 – U –X/5 = ln (1 – U) X = – 5 ln (1 – U) • Picture (inverting the CDF, as in discrete case): Intuition (garden hose): More U’s will hit F(x) where it’s steep This is where the density f(x) is tallest, and we want a denser distribution of X’s Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  18. Nonstationary Poisson Processes • Many systems have externally originating events affecting them — e.g., arrivals of customers • If process is stationary over time, usually specify a fixed interevent-time distribution • But process could vary markedly in its rate • Fast-food lunch rush • Freeway rush hours • Ignoring nonstationarity can lead to serious model and output errors • Already seen this — enhanced call center, Models 5-2, 5-3 Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  19. Nonstationary Poisson Processes – Definition • Usual model: nonstationary Poisson process: • Have a rate functionl(t) • Number of events in [t1, t2] ~ Poisson with mean • Issues: • How to estimate rate function? • Given an estimate, how to generate during simulation? l(t) t Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  20. Nonstationary Poisson Processes – Estimating the Rate Function • Estimation of the rate function • Probably the most practical method is piecewise constant • Decide on a time interval within which rate is fixed • Estimate from data the (constant) rate during each interval • Be careful to get the units right • Other (more complicated) methods exist in the literature Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  21. Nonstationary Poisson Processes – Generation • Arena has a built-in method to generate, assuming a piecewise-constant rate function • ArrivalSchedule in Create module – Models 5-2, 5-3 • Method is to invert a rate-one stationary Poisson process against the cumulate rate function L • Similar to inverting CDF for continuous random-variable generation • Exploits some speed-up possibilities • Details in Help topic “Non-Stationary Exponential Distribution” • Alternative method: “thinning” of a stationary Poisson process at the peak rate Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  22. Variance Reduction • Random input Þ random output (RIRO) • In other words, output has variance • Higher output variance means less precise results • Would like to eliminate or reduce output variance • One (bad) way to eliminate: replace all input random variables by constants (like their mean) • Will get rid of random output, but will also invalidate model • Thus, best hope is to reduce output variance • Easy (brute-force) variance reduction: just simulate some more • Terminating: additional replications • Steady-state: additional replications or a longer run Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  23. Variance Reduction (cont’d.) • But sometimes can reduce variance without more runs — free lunch (?) • Key: unlike physical experiments, can control randomness in computer-simulation experiments via manipulating the RNG • Re-use the same “random” numbers either as they were, in some opposite sense, or for a similar but simpler model • Several different variance-reduction techniques • Classified into categories — common random numbers, antithetic variates, control variates, indirect estimation, … • Usually requires thorough understanding of model, “code” • Will look only at common random numbers in detail Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  24. Common Random Numbers (CRN) • Applies when objective is to compare two (or more) alternative configurations or models • Interest is in difference(s) of performance measure(s) across alternatives • Model 7-2 (small mfg. system), total avg. WIP output — two alternatives A. Base case (as is) B. 3.5% increase in business (interarrival-time mean falls from 13 to 12.56 minutes) • Same run conditions, but change model into Model 12-1: • Remove Output File Total WIP History.dat • Add entry to Statistic module to compute and save to a .dat file the total avg. WIP on each replication Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  25. The “Natural” Comparison • Run case A, make the change to get to case B and run it, then Compare Means via Output Analyzer: • Difference is not statistically significant • Were the runs of A and B statistically independent? • Did we use the same random numbers running A and B? • Did we use the same random numbers intelligently? Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  26. CRN Intuition • Get sharper comparison if you subject all alternatives to the same “conditions” • Then observed differences are due to model differences rather than random differences in the “conditions” • Small mfg. system: For both A and B runs, cause: • The “same” parts arrive at the same times • Be assigned same attributes (job type) • Have the same process times at each step • Then observed differences will be attributable to system differences, not random bounce • There isn’t any random bounce Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  27. Synchronization of Random Numbers in CRN • Generally, get CRN by using the same RNG, seed, stream(s) for all alternatives • Already are using the same stream, default = stream 10 • But its usage generally gets mixed up across alternatives • Must use the same random numbers for the same purposes across the alternatives — synchronization of random-number usage • Usually requires some work, understanding of model • Usually use different streams in the RNG • Usually different ways to do this in a given model • Sometimes can’t synchronize completely for complex models — settle for partial synchronization Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  28. Synchronization of Random Numbers in CRN (cont’d.) • Synchronize by source of randomness (we’ll do) • Assign stream to each point of variate generation • Separate random-number “faucets” … extra parameter in r.v. calls • Model 12-1: 14 sources of randomness, separate stream for each (see book for details), modify into Model 12-2 • Fairly simple but might not ensure complete synchronization; still usually get some benefit from this • Synchronize by entity (won’t do — see Exercises) • Pre-generate every possible random variate an entity might need when it arrives, assign to attributes, used downstream • Better synchronization insurance but uses more memory • Across replications, RNG automatically goes to next substream within each stream • Maintains synchronization if alternatives disagree on number of random numbers used per stream per replication Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  29. Effect of CRN • CRN was no more computational effort • Effect here is fairly dramatic, but it will not always be this strong • Depends on “how similar” A and B are “Natural” Comparison Synchronized CRN Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  30. = 0 if indep > 0 with CRN CRN Statistical Issues • In Output Analyzer, Analyze > Compare Means option, have choice of Paired-t or Two-Sample-t for c.i. test on difference between means • Paired-t subtracts results replication by replication — must use this if doing CRN • Two-Sample-t treats the samples independently — can use this if doing independent sampling, often better than Paired-t • Mathematical justification for CRN • Let X = output r.v. from alternative A, Y = output from B Var(X – Y) = Var(X) + Var(Y) – 2 Cov(X, Y) Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  31. Other Variance-Reduction Techniques • For single-system simulation, not comparisons • Antithetic variates: make pairs of runs • Use “U’s” on first run of pair, “1 – U’s” on second run of pair • Take average of two runs: negatively correlated, reducing variance of average • Like CRN, must take care to synchronize • Control variates • Use internal variate generation to “control” results up, down • Indirect estimation • Simulation estimates something other than what you want, but related to what you want by a fixed formula Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  32. Sequential Sampling • Always try to quantify imprecision in results • If imprecision is “small enough,” you’re done • If not, need to do something to increase precision • Just saw one way: variance-reduction techniques • Obvious way to increase precision: keep simulating one more “step” at a time, quit when you achieve desired precision • Terminating models: “step” = another replication • Cannot extend length of replications — that’s part of the model • Steady-state models: • “step” = another replication if using truncated replications, or • “step” = some extension of the run if using batch means Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  33. Sequential Sampling — Terminating Models • Modify Model 12-2 (small mfg., base case, with random-number streams) into Model 12-3 • Made 25 replications, get 95% c.i. on expected average Total WIP as 13.03 ± 1.28 • Suppose the ±1.28 is too big — want to reduce to ±0.5 • Approximate formulas from Sec. 6.3: need 124 or 164 total replications (depending on which formula) rather than 25 • Instead, just make one more at a time, re-compute c.i., stop as soon as half-width is less than 0.5 • “Trick” Arena to keep making more replications until c.i. half-width < tolerance = 0.5 Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  34. Sequential Sampling — Terminating Models (cont’d.) • Recall: With > 1 replication, automatically get cross-replication 95% c.i.’s for expected values in Category Overview report • Related internal Arena variables: • ORUNHALF(Output ID) = half-width of 95% c.i. using completed replications (Output ID = Avg Total WIP) • MREP = total number of replications asked for (initially, MREP = Number of Replications in Run > Setup > Replication Parameters) • NREP = replication number now in progress (= 1, 2, 3, …) • Use, manipulate these variables Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  35. Sequential Sampling — Terminating Models (cont’d.) • Initially set MREP to huge value in NumberofReplications in Run>Setup>Replication Parameters • Keep replicating until we cut off when half-width £ 0.5 • Add logic (in a submodel) to sense when done • Create one “control” entity at beginning of each replication • Control entity immediately checks to see if: NREP£ 2: This is beginning of 1st or 2nd replication ORUNHALF(Avg Total WIP) > 0.5: c.i. on completed replications is still too big In either case, keep going with this replication (and the next one too); control entity is Disposed and takes no action • If both conditions are false, Control entity Assigns MREP = NREP to stop after this replication, and is Disposed Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  36. Sequential Sampling — Terminating Models (cont’d.) • Details • This overshoots required number of replications by one • In Assign module setting MREP to NREP, have to select Type = Other since MREP is a built-in Arena variable • Results: Stopped with 232 total replications, yielding half width = 0.49699 (barely less than 0.5) • Different from earlier number-of-replications approximations (they’re just that) • Generalizations • Precision demands on several outputs • Relative-width stopping: (half-width) / (pt. estimate) small Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  37. Sequential Sampling — Steady-State Models • If doing truncated-replications approach to steady-state statistical analysis • Same strategy as above for terminating models • Warm-up Period specified in Run > Setup > Replication Parameters • Err on the side of too much warmup • Point-estimator bias is especially dangerous in sequential sampling • Getting tight c.i. centered in the wrong place • The tighter the c.i. demanded, the worse the coverage probability Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  38. Sequential Sampling — Steady-State Models (cont’d.) • Batch-means approach • Model 12-4: modification of Model 7-4 (small mfg. system) – want half-width on E(average WIP) to be < 1 • Keep extending the run to reduce c.i. half-width • Use automatic run-time batch-means 95% c.i.’s • Stopping criterion: Terminating Condition field of Run > Setup > Replication Parameters • Half-width variables are THALF(Tally ID) or DHALF(Dstat ID) • For us, condition is DHALF(Total WIP) < 1 • Remove all other stopping devices from model • If “Insuf” or “Corr” would be returned because of too little data, half-width variables set to huge value — keep going • Could demand multiple smallness criteria, relative precision (TAVG, DAVG variables for point-estimate denominator) Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

  39. Designing and Executing Simulation Experiments • Think of a simulation model as a convenient “testbed” or laboratory for experimentation • Look at different output responses • Look at effects, interaction of different input factors • Apply classical experimental-design techniques • Factorial experiments — main effects, interactions • Fractional-factorial experiments • Factor-screening designs • Response-surface methods, “metamodels” • CRN is “blocking” in experimental-design terminology • Process Analyzer (PAN) provides a convenient way to carry out a designed experiment • See Chapt. 6 for an example of using PAN for a factorial experiment Chapter 12 – Further Statistical Issues

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