Introduction to Philosophy

1. Introduction to Philosophy PART TWO: Philosophy & Religion

2. The Problem of Faith & Reason • Early Christian Thought • Greeks • Jewish Tradition • Cause of the problem • Two sources: faith & reason • Classic Questions • Points of Disagreement • Points of Agreement • Biblical tradition: anti-philosophy • Biblical tradition: pro-philosophy

3. The Problem of Faith & Reason • 11th & 12th Century • Introduction • Reason as predominant • John Scotus Erigena • Roscelin • Abelard • Faith as predominant • Monastic reforms • Peter Damian • St. Bernard • Anselm’s View • Reason & Faith • Proof through deduction • Synthesis of faith & reason-Aquinas • Theology & philosophy

4. The Nature & Existence of God • Questions • Metaphysical questions • What is the nature of God? • Does God exist? • Epistemic Questions • How do we know the nature of God? • How do we know God exists? • Reason & Logic • View • A priori reasoning and God • A Priori Reasoning • St. Anselm, Descartes, Leibniz • A posteriori reasoning and God • A posteriori reasoning • St. Aquinas, David Hume

5. The Nature & Existence of God • Rejection of Reason & Logic • View • Approaches • God can be known through faith. • God can be known through mystical experience/divine revelation. • God cannot be known by any means. • Pascal’s Wager

6. Regresses & Absurdity • Regress & Absurdity Methodology • Introduction • Circular Regress • Defined • Form & Examples • A requires A • A requires B, B requires C…Z requires A • Job-Experience • Infinite Regress • Defined • Form • 1 requires 2 • 2 requires 3 • 3 requires 4 • X requires X+1

7. Regresses & Absurdity • The Evil Bureaucrat • Reductio Ad Absurdum (Reducing to Absurdity) • Defined • Form #1 • Assume P is true. • Prove that assuming P leads to something false, absurd or contradictory. • Conclude that P is false. • Form #2 • Assume P is false. • Prove that assuming P is false leads to something false, absurd or contradictory. • Conclude that P is true. • Example

8. Regresses & Absurdity • Example • Using a regress in a Reductio Ad Absurdum • Introduction • Example

9. St. Anselm • Background • Background (1033-1109) • Goal

10. St. Anselm’s Ontological Argument • Anselm’s A Priori Argument for God’s Existence • The fool understands • “God”: a being than which nothing can be conceived (NGCBC). • Fool says there is no God. • The understands what he hears. • What he understands is in his understanding. • It is one thing for an object to be in the understanding. • It is another to understand the object exists. • Painter analogy • The fool is convinced something exists in his understanding. • From Understanding to Reality • Whatever is understood is in the understanding. • That than which NGCBC cannot exist in the understanding alone. • If NGCBC exists in the understanding alone, it is something GCBC.

11. St. Anselm’s Ontological Argument • Suppose it exists only in the understanding-it can be conceived to exist in reality, which is greater. • If NGCBC exists in the understanding alone it is GCBC. • This is impossible. • There exists NGCBC in reality & understanding. • God cannot be conceived not to exist • NGCBC exists so truly it cannot be conceived not to exist. • It is possible to conceive of a being that which cannot be conceived not to exist and this is greater than one that can be conceived not to exist. • If NGCBC can be conceived not to exist, it is not NGCBC. • This is a contradiction. • There is so truly a NGCBC that it cannot even be conceived not to exist.

12. St. Anselm’s Ontological Argument • God alone cannot be conceived not to exist • God exists and cannot be conceived not to exist. • If one could conceive of a being better than God, the creature would rise above its creator, which is absurd. • Everything, except God, can be conceived not to exist. • God alone exists more truly than all others and hence in a higher degree. • Whatever else exists does not exist so truly so it exists to a lesser degree. • So the fool denies God because he is a fool.

13. Gaunilo’s Answer to the Argument of Anselm • Challenge & Doubt • Gaunilo’s Challenge • Suppose it is said a being which cannot be even conceived in terms of any fact, is in the understanding. • Gaunilo accepts that this being is in his understanding. • He will not accept that it has a real existence until a proof is given. • Gaunilo’s Doubt • Anselm claims this being exists-otherwise the being which is greater than all will not be greater than all. • Gaunilo doubts that this being is greater than any real object. • The only existence it has is the same as when the mind, from a word heard, tries to form the image of an unknown object.

14. Gaunilo’s Answer to the Argument of Anselm • How is the existence of that being proved from the assumption that it is greater than all other beings? • He does not admit that this being is in his understanding even in the way which many objects whose real existence is uncertain and doubtful, are in his understanding. • It should be proved first that this being really exists. • Then, from the fact that it is greater than all, we would conclude it also subsists in itself.

15. Gaunilo’s Answer to the Argument of Anselm • Gaunilo’s Perfect Island Argument • The Perfect Island • There is an island that is impossible to find, the “lost” island. • This island has inestimable wealth and no owner or inhabitant. • Hence it is more excellent than all other countries, which are inhabited. • If someone claims there is such an island, Gaunilo would understand his words. • The parity of reasoning: But suppose he said: • You cannot doubt that this most excellent of island exists somewhere. • You have no doubt that it is in your understanding. • It is more excellent not to be in the understanding alone, but to exist in the understanding and in reality. • Hence, the island must exist. • If it does not exist, any land which really exists will be more excellent. • Hence, the island understood to be more excellent will not be more excellent.

16. Gaunilo’s Answer to the Argument of Anselm • Gaunilo’s Criticism of this line of reasoning. • If someone tried to persuade him by such reasoning, he would assume the person was jesting or regard him or himself a fool. • It ought to be shown that: • The hypothetical excellence of this island exists as a real and indubitable fact. • It is not an unreal object, or one whose existence is uncertain in Gaunilo’s understanding. • A note of Gaunilo’s method. • He is combining parity of reasoning with a reduction to absurdity. • Parity of reasoning: to use reasoning that parallels the reasoning in question. • In this case Gaunilo is using the same line of reasoning as Anselm. • Reducing to absurdity: to prove that a claim is implausible by drawing an absurd or contradictory conclusion from it. • In this case Gaunilo draws an absurd conclusion by using Anselm’s method. • He thus concludes that the method is flawed.

17. Anselm’s Reply to Gaunilo • The Island • Anselm’s Summary of Gaunilo’s Objection • One should suppose an island in the ocean, which surpasses all lands in its fertility. • Because of the impossibility of discovering what does not exist is called a lost island. • There can be no doubt that this island truly exists in reality. • Hence one who hears it described understands what he hears. • Anselm’s Challenge • If any shall devise anything existing in reality or in concept alone (except that than which a greater cannot be conceived) to which he can apply Anselm’s reasoning, he will discover it.

18. Anselm’s Reply to Gaunilo • Anselm’s Reply • Part one: God cannot be conceived not to be. • This being than which a greater is inconceivable cannot be conceived not to be. • Because it exists on so assured a ground of truth. • Otherwise it would not exist at all. • Part Two: The dilemma • So, if one claims he conceives this being not to exist, at the time when he conceives of this either he conceives of a being than which a greater is inconceivable or he does not conceive at all. • If he does not conceive, he does not conceive of the nonexistence of that of which he does not conceive. • If he conceives, he certainly conceives of a being which cannot be even conceived not to exist. • If it could be conceived not to exist, it could be conceived to have a beginning and an end. • This impossible.

19. Anselm’s Reply to Gaunilo • Part Three: It’s inconceivable. • He who conceives of this being conceives of a being which cannot be even conceived not to exist. • But he who conceives of this being does not conceive that it does not exist. • If he does so, then he conceives what is inconceivable. • The nonexistence of that than which a greater cannot be conceived is inconceivable.

20. St. Thomas Aquinas • Background (1224-1274) • Early Life • Son of the count of Aquino • Imprisoned in a tower • Albert the Great • Eastern Orthodox Church • Mystic Experience • Canonized in 1323 • 1879 Pope Leo XIII • The Ox • Nickname • The flying Cow • Works • 25 Volumes • Summa Theologica

21. St. Thomas Aquinas • Aristotle & Aquinas • Complete Works • 12th-13th Century: the complete works of Aristotle became available in Europe. • Aristotle’s works presented a systematic and developed philosophy. • Conflict • Aristotle: the world is eternal and uncreated. • Apparently did not accept personal immortality. • Ibn Rushd’s commentaries on Aristotle • Neo-Platonism • Aquinas’ View • Aristotle’s view could be adopted without heresy. • Regarded Aristotle as a rich intellectual behavior. • “The Philosopher.” • Aristotle as a pagan lacking divine revelation.

22. St. Thomas Aquinas • Shift from Plato to Aristotle • Platonic notions of the eternal & other worldliness. • Aristotle’s works presented a systematic and developed philosophy. • Faith & Reason • Reconciliation: Augustine • Sin damaged reason • Grace • Faith as necessary condition for philosophical understanding • Reconciliation: Aquinas • Sin did not criple our rational facilities • Reason as autonomous source of knowledge • Distinguishes between philosophy & theology • Two sources of knowledge • Theology yields knowledge via faith & revelation • Philosophy yield knowledge via reason and experience

23. St. Thomas Aquinas • Truth: Christian teachings that a matter of faith • Known via revelation • Beyond reason, not contrary to reason • Objections and problems • Cannot be proven/disproven by reason • Examples: trinity, incarnation, original sin, etc. • Truth: Empirical Knowledge & Self Evident Philosophical Principles • Not known via revelation • Examples: Aristotle’s logic, biological functions of heart • Truth: Overlap of philosophy & theology • Known via revelation or reason • Examples: God’s existence & qualities, existence of the soul, immortality, natural moral law • Two Type of Theology • Revealed supernatural • Natural theology • Conflict

24. St. Thomas Aquinas • Aquinas’ Epistemology & Metaphysics • Epistemology • Aristotle’s Influence • Blank slate • No innate knowledge • Senses provide reason with content • Intellect • Intellect • Passive & active • Passive operations • Objects of experience • Active aspect • Potential • Natural process

25. St. Thomas Aquinas • Metaphysics: Hierarchy • Actuality & Potentiality • Prime matter-potentiality • Forms-actuality • God-pure actuality • Change • Great Chain of Being • Hierarchy • Variety • Angels • Knowable • Purpose • Objective Values

26. St. Thomas Aquinas • Metaphysics: Existence & Essence • Essence & Existence • Essence • Existence • God • His essence entails He exists • God • Necessity • Rejection of ontological argument • Empirical experience

27. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • Introduction • Introduction • Aristotle • General Form • If the world has X, then God exists. • The world has X. • God exists. • Cosmological argument • Assumption: infinite regress of causes is not possible

28. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • The First Way (the Way of Motion) • Some things are in motion • Whatever is moved is moved by another • Potentiality • A thing moves • Reduction from potentiality to actuality • Fire • Actuality & potentiality in different respects • Hot • Cold • Impossible to be both moved and mover. • Whatever is moved is moved by another • Moved by another

29. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • Moved by another • This cannot go on to infinity • No first mover • No other mover • Moved by first mover • Staff • First mover • This everyone understands to be God

30. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • The Second Way ( Efficient Cause) • Order of efficient causes • Nothing can be the efficient cause of itself • Not possible to go on to infinity • Efficient causes following an order • First • Intermediate • Take away the cause • If no first cause, then neither intermediate nor ultimate • If it is possible to go on to infinity • No first efficient cause • No ultimate effect • No immediate efficient causes • Plainly false • First efficient cause to which everyone gives the name God.

31. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • The Third Way (Possibility & Necessity) • Possible to be and not to be • Impossible for these to always exist • One time there was nothing • Nothing would exist now • Impossible for anything to have begun to exist • Thus now nothing would be in existence • There must exist something whose existence is necessary • Every necessary thing either has its necessity cause by another or not • Impossible to go on to infinity • As per efficient causes • Therefore we must admit the existence of a being • Having of itself its own necessity • Not receiving it from another • Causing necessity in others • This all men speak of as God

32. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • The Fourth Way (Gradation) • Among beings are some more and some less • More or less are predicated by resemblance to a maximum • There is something truest, best, noblest • There is something most in being • The maximum in any genus is the cause of all in that genus • Fire • There must be something which is the cause of being, goodness, perfection • This being we call God

33. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • The Fifth Way (Governance of the World) • Things that act from knowledge act for an end • Evident from acting in the same way • Whatever lacks knowledge must be directed • Therefore some intelligent being directs all natural things • This being we call God

34. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • Common Mistakes in Interpreting the 5 Ways • Everything must have a cause • Does not assume this • What is potential must be cause by what is actual • Created beings • The world has a beginning in time • Does not attempt to prove this • Does not disprove • Aristotle’s eternal world and unmoved mover • Possibility of an eternal universe • First cause • Eternal flame • God as a continuously sustaining cause • Not possible to prove an eternal world • St. Bonaventure • Beginning in time • Revelation, not proof

35. St. Thomas Aquinas: Five Ways • Common Criticisms • Five beings • Five different beings • Being distinguished by qualities • Perfect and unlimited being • Two perfect beings would be identical • Cannot be two unlimited beings • “And this everyone understands to be God” • Different from the personal God • Not a complete view of God • Important qualities • Way of gradation

36. Gottfried Leibniz • Background • German Culture • Stagnant • Languages • Reformation & 30 Years Way (1618-1648) • No other significant thinkers • Background for Leibniz • Early Years • Professional career • Diplomacy • Works • Logical Method

37. Leibniz: Arguments for God • God • Proofs for God’s Existence • Ontological argument • Eternal & necessary truths • Design argument • Cosmological argument • Proof of God’s Existence for God’s Existence • God • Supreme substance • Unique, universal, necessary • Nothing else independent • Incapable of limits, as much reality as possible. • Perfection • God is absolutely perfect • Perfections from God, imperfections from their own nature

38. Leibniz: Arguments for God • Existence • God is the source • Existence of a necessary being • God alone must exist if he is possible

39. Leibniz: Arguments for God • The Cosmological Argument • Two principles on which reasons are founded • Contradiction • False • True • Sufficient reason • Reason why it is so • Known • Two kinds of truth • Those of reasoning • Necessary • Analysis • Those of fact • Contingent • Possible

40. Leibniz: Arguments for God • Sufficient Reason • Contingent truths • Resolution • Contingents • Sufficient/final reason • God • Necessary substance • Change exists eminently • God suffices

41. Leibniz: Problem of Evil • Best of All Possible Worlds • The best world • “best of all possible worlds” • Single event • Entirety • God’s choice • God’s Choice • Infinity of possible universes • Reason • Best • Wisdom • Goodness • Power • Diversity • Only God is perfect • God must pick the best • Variety & order

42. Leibniz: Problem of Evil • No Better World Possible • Intellectualist view • God’s will • The problem and reply • God lacks goodness • Defects • Big picture • Not made for us alone • The Best • Impossible • Reply • Denial of Pantheism • Infinite divisibility • Infinity is not a whole • God • Universe is not an animal or substance

43. Leibniz: Problem of Evil • Evil as Privation • Whence does evil come? • Origin of Evil-Ancients • Matter • Uncreated • Origin of Evil-intellectualist view • Eternal verities • Original imperfection • Errors • Understanding & Necessity • Plato • God & Nature • Understanding • Necessity • Understanding • Primitive Form • Ideal Cause • Formal cause • Evil is deficient

44. Leibniz: Problem of Evil • The Analogy of the Boat • Boats • Cargo • Slower • Receptivity • Slower • The Analogy • Current is like God • Inertia is like imperfection • Slowness is like defects • Current causes motion not retardation • God causes perfection • Limitation in receptivity • God causes the material element of evil not the formal • Current is the material cause of retardation but not the formal • It causes the speed but not the limit • God and sin • Defects • God produces all that is positive, good and perfect • Imperfections arise from the original limitations • God cannot give all • Degrees of perfection

45. David Hume • Background (1711-1776) • Life & Philosophical Writings • Born 1711 • Edinburgh University • France • Works • A Treatise of Human Nature • An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding • An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals • Natural History of Religion • Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion • History of England • Died 1776 (still dead today)

46. Hume’s Philosophy of Religion: Existence of God • Skepticism • Introduction • Skeptical • A priori & a posteriori arguments fail • Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion • Cleanthes: a posteriori arguments • Demea: faith & a priori arguments • Philo: skeptic • All arguments for God fail • First cause arguments • Reason • Matters of fact • Existence • A priori reasoning • Conceiving • Demonstrable • Relations of ideas

47. Hume’s Philosophy of Religion: Existence of God • Causation • Assumption • Causality as habit • House analogy • Universe • No constant conjunction • No empirical argument based on causation • Rejection of Design • Mechanistic assumption • Resembles animal/vegetable more than a machine • Matching environment • Ideally suited

48. Hume’s Philosophy of Religion: Existence of God • Five Problems • Introduction • Like effects • First Problem • Finite effect • Cause as great as the effect • Second Problem • Perfect • Perfect universe • Falls short • No other universes • Third Problem • As good as possible • Many worlds • Labor lost • Slow improvement

49. Hume’s Philosophy of Religion: Existence of God • Fourth Problem • One God • Analogy • Fifth • God as physical being

50. Hume’s Problem of Evil • Establishing the Misery • Philo-Feeling • Misery • Eloquence • Feel it more • Demea-Truth • Truth • Miseries • Cannot be doubted • Philo-Agreement • Learned • Poets • Demea-Writers & Misery • All complain • Philo-Leibniz • Denied